100. customarily: adv. 习惯的；惯例的; customary: adj;
accustomed: adj. 习惯了的；通常的
e.g. However, appetitive extinction is typically assessed using instrumental conditioning procedures, whereas the extinction of aversive conditioning is customarily studied using Pavlovian assays
99. channel: vt. 引导；形成河道；集中（精力）; n. 频道；海峡；方法；通道；（消息）渠道
e.g. Our results provide evidence that information about the selection and evaluation of actions is channelled through distinct sets of basal ganglia circuits, with the GPh representing a key locus in which information of opposing valence is integrated to determine whether action outcomes are better or worse than expected.
98. funnel through: n. 漏斗；漏斗状物；烟囱; vt. 使成漏斗状；使经过漏斗; vi. 形成漏斗状；经过漏斗
e.g. Through the stria medullaris fibre tract, the LHb receives afferent inputs mainly from the limbic forebrain regions and the basal ganglia, which funnel through largely parallel circuits to reach the LHbM and LHbL, respectively.
97. In light of: adj. 考虑到(从 ... 观点； 由于 ... 结果)
e.g. In light of these findings, it is intriguing that we found no effect of PrL inactivation on the expression of conditioned port entries elicited by a CS that had previously been paired with sucrose.
96. congruent: adj. 合适的；一致的；全等的
e.g. In the present study, however, IL inactivation produced a pattern of behaviour that is congruent with a facilitation of extinction.
95. a dearth of: 缺乏 [dɜːrθ]
e.g. There is a dearth of information on the role of the IL in the extinction of appetitive Pavlovian conditioning.
94. paramount: adj. 极为重要的；至高无上的 n. 最高统治者
e.g. Behavioral change is paramount to adaptive behavior.
93. as opposed to: 与 ... 形成对照
e.g. Specifically, the IL cortex may underscore reduction in behavior through a loss in the ability of a cue to evoke the conditioned response directly (extinction) as opposed to indirectly by reducing the expectation of the outcome (overexpectation).
92. on (a) par with: na.与…持平；与…不相上下
e.g. That is, these rats responded more than the vehicle extinction rats but were not on par with controls.
91. instigate: vt. 教唆；怂恿；煽动；鼓动 ['ɪnstɪɡeɪt]
e.g. Thus, per PIT and PCA studies, weak cues are more effective at instigating motivated behavior.
90. boost: v. 提高；增加；鼓励；举起；为...做宣传 n. 增加；推进；鼓励
e.g.This boost in motivation is assumed to be greatest when rewards are completely unpredictable and drops off for other cues based on
how reliably they signal either the presence or absence of reward.
89. take up: v. 拿起；开始；从事；吸收；接纳；占去；继续做；做某事消遣
e.g.The recently introduced incentive hope theory takes up the motivational hypothesis, positing that reward uncertainty directly amplifies the motivational value of rewardpredictive cues, similar to an increase in physiological need (e.g. hunger, thirst).
88. standalone: adj. 独立的；单独的 n. 独立的电脑
e.g. Finally, due to the diverse nature of the content reviewed herein, individual sections in the present review can be considered as standalone, allowing the reader to focus on those of interest.
87. quest: n. 探索；寻求 v. 寻找；搜索
e.g. The present review brings together these diverse felds and hopes to introduce the neuroscientist to the multifaceted and informative behavioural designs that learning theory can offer in the quest for understanding how the brain regulates behaviour.
86. aids in: vt. 帮助； 在 ... 给予帮助
85. situate: vt. 位于； 坐落在 adj. 位于 ... 的； 坐落在 ... 的
e.g. This signal serves as a textbook example of a signed prediction error and, in the present review, it aids in situating the role of other brain areas and neurotransmitters in prediction error.
84. go on: 继续
e.g. These principles have gone on to shape further research on extinction at both the behavioral and neurobiological levels of analysis.
83. surge: n. 汹涌；波涛；猛增 v. 汹涌；涌起；激增；[海]缆绳滑脱
e.g. Important questions remain, but a surge of interest in extinction across a number of psychological and neuroscience domains have started to tackle issues relevant to the disruption of unwanted behaviors and persistent alteration of fear memories.
82. in the first place: 起初； 首先
e.g. First, extinction relies on negative prediction errors, reliably generated only if the CS predicted the US consistently enough to render its absence a violation of expectancy in the first place.
81. uphill: adv. 上坡地；向上地 adj. 上坡的；向上的；费力的 n. 上坡
80. in place: 在适当的位置
e.g. Viewed from this perspective, clinical treatments based on extinction principles face an uphill struggle, because mechanisms are in place at the basic level of learning and memory to ‘‘forget’’ safety much more readily than threat.
79. envision: vt. 想象；设想
e.g. A possible biological foundation for some of these mechanisms was also suggested in an earlier model of extinction by Redish et al. (2007), which envisions that something similar to latent causes is implemented by attractor states in the cortex.
78. departure: n. 出发；离开；分歧；新的尝试
e.g. Though Rescorla-Wagner and Pearce-Hall models are most famous for differing with respect to their accounts of cue competition phenomena (discussed below), another major departure between these two models are their accounts of extinction.
77. notwithstanding: adv. 虽然；尽管 prep. 纵使 conj. 虽然
e.g. This failure in explaining extinction notwithstanding, the core error-driven learning (and unlearning) mechanism of Rescorla Wagner has received support from two directions.
76. engender：vt. 产生；引起
e.g. This is because, in this model, extinction engenders a simple decrease of the associative value of the CS.
75. pre-ordained: 提前- vt. 任命；授以圣职；命令；注定; vi. 颁发命令 [ɔːr'deɪn]
e.g. Thus, rather than being pre-ordained solely by prior associative history, value can be viewed as being
actively constructed by the brain in a manner that takes into account the organism’s current motivational states,
goals and external context.
74. as such: 照这样； 就这点而论
e.g. Although all reward, reinforcement, and decision variables are theoretical constructs, their neuronal signals
constitute measurable physical implementations and as such confirm the validity of these concepts.
73. confers on: 授给, 授予
e.g. This mechanism confers on an organism the means to rapidly alter behavior following a sudden change
in either internal motivation or the external context or goal, therefore lying at the core of the adaptive control of
behavior.
72. as yet: 到目前为止； 迄今
e.g. Thus, by treating classic decision variables as yet another set of relevant outcome features and by in
turn assigning different weights to each of these features, it is possible to capture variation in behavioral
preferences as accomplished in classic decision theories.
71. never before: 以前从来没有
e.g. These features are the components by which a potentially never before seen novel stimulus is evaluated.
70. hitherto: adv. 到目前为止；迄今
69. in the first place:
e.g. However, a fundamental open question remains: how are these value signals computed in the first place? Attempts to answer this question have predominantly involved an appeal to associative learning whereby a cue or an action stimuli acquire value through associations being formed between a hitherto affectively neutral stimulus or action, and an outcome with an extant (perhaps innate) value.
68. on the fly:
e.g. Clearly, the brain is capable of flexibly making value-based decisions on the fly based on current motivational and homeostatic states, the context in which a
stimulus is being perceived, and the goal that is currently
being pursued.
67. brew: v. 酿造；泡（茶）；酝酿；策划 n. 酿造物；（酿造物的）质地；混合物
e.g. There's trouble brewing in the office.
e.g. If a storm is brewing, it will happen soon.
66. leading up to: 在 ... 之前
e.g. Perceptual decisions involve interaction of sensory information with subjects’ expectations and prior knowledge leading up to behavioral choice.
65. played out:发生；演到终场；放出；精疲力尽
e.g. An opposing scenario — when a course of action has a bad outcome — is played out in the indirect pathway SPNs.
64. tell apart：辨别；区分
e.g. This is because direct and indirect pathway SPNs are intermingled and difficult to tell apart using physiological tools.
63. in tandem: adv. 一前一后地；合作地
e.g.A study shows that, rather than sequentially starting and stopping a movement, two parallel pathways involving neurons in the brain’s basal ganglia seem to work in tandem to accomplish the complex task of motion.
62. conceptual puzzle:
E.g. This simple picture poses an obvious conceptual puzzle. If DA is necessary for the induction of synaptic plasticity and D1 and D2 receptors are expressed by different MSNs, then synaptic plasticity must be unidirectional in each population. However, a high percentage of MSNs display both forms of plasticity.
61. by way of:
E.g. Medium spiny neurons in the anterior striatumreceive projections from associative cortical areas presumed to have arole in learning and motor selection and project back to those sameareas by way of the globus pallidus and thalamus.
60. in a row：成一排； 连续
e.g. The monkeys were considered to have successfully learned to associate a given new image with the correct target location if they had
selected the correct target at least five times in a row.
59. if anything：如果有什么的话
E.g. In contrast, rats in the X+Y– condition spent, if anything, more time in the box containing the B odor
58. in accordance with: Matching or agreeing with something.
e.g.the striatum (an input structure of the basal ganglia) showed rapid, almost bistable, changes compared with a slower trend in the prefrontal cortex that was more in accordance with slow improvements in behavioural performance.
57. turn the tide: vi. 扭转局势; turn the tables 扭转形势
e.g. Emory wooed. DeLong wavered. The dean thought DeLong was a great negotiator. His friends knew he was more likely postponing a decision. One thing that turned the tide, says DeLong, was Emory’s willingness to invest in brain imaging, including construction of a new PET center.
56. seek out: 找出； 挑出
55. intent on: 抱定决心要实行； 打算
e.g. About a year before publication of DeLong’s groundbreaking paper on relief from PD symptoms due to basal ganglia lesioning, Emory University sought out DeLong as a possible new chair of neurology, a department and program, which the university was intent on expanding.
54. melt away :(使)融化； (使)消散
53. whirlwind:['wɜːlwɪnd] n. 旋风；旋风般的突发事件; adj. 旋风般的
e.g. When a lesion was made on one side of the basal ganglia, the tremor and muscular rigidity almost instantaneously melted away on the opposite side of the body. Publication in the journal Science, in 1990, created another whirlwind of excitement.
52. stay on:留在； 继续住下去； 保持
e.g.Like some others of the notable bright young men and women who trained at Hopkins in this golden era, he finished his residency and stayed on as faculty.
51. step into：进入； 着手做
50. stake out：（派人）监视；明确阐述；立桩标出
49. latecomer: 迟到者；新来者
e.g. Thanks to the draft, DeLong had once again stepped into "the perfect place." Earlier arrivals to the lab already had staked out the "good stuff," however: the obvious parts of the brain, like the motor cortex and cerebellum, clearly known to be important in control of movement. As the latecomer, DeLong got one of the few parts left: the basal ganglia, a collection of complex interconnected brain structures deep in the cerebral hemisphere.
48. level off： 呈平稳状态, 做水平运动
e.g. Figure 5.1b shows that the time to escape from a puzzle box decreases rapidly in the first few trials and then levels off;
47. concertedly： adv. 一致地
e.g.This investigation revealed that ACh regulates the striatal circuit concertedly but oppositely to dopamine and that selective cholinergic cell ablation causes severe impairment of motor balance.
46. contrast with：与…形成对比(对照),衬托； 与…对比
e.g. These results contrast with findings indicating that prelimbic inactivation impairs behavioral flexibility due to perseveration of a previously learned strategy.
45. To this end: 为此目的
E.g. Tonically active neurons (TANs), presumed cholinergic interneurons in the striatum, are thoughtto be involved in the learning and performance of reward-directed behaviors, but it remains unclear how TANs areinvolved in shaping reward-directed choice behaviors based on the outcome feedback. To this end, we recorded activity of TANs from the dorsal striatum of two macaque monkeys while theyperformed a multi-step choice task to obtain multiple rewards.
44. situationally：
e.g. The results suggest that the dorsomedial striatum is important for behavioral flexibility and that activation of muscarinic cholinergic receptors in this region may facilitate the learning of situationally adaptive response patterns
43. meticulous: 一丝不苟的；缜密的
e.g. In meticulous experiments over several years, DeLong measured the firing of specific cells in the basal ganglia of awake monkeys when they performed specific trained movements.
42. status quo: 现状
e.g. whether we exercise and eat right, whether we make choices as optimists or as pessimists, whether we stay motivated to reach our goals or stick to the status quo.
41. commence: 开始；着手；<英>获得学位
e.g. After recovery, behavioral experiments were commenced.
40. on top of：在 ... 之上；停留在…之上；加之；控制住；对…了如指掌
E.g. I am glad that she has not minded an extra dose of neurobiology on top of her demanding high-school courses and extracurricular activities.
39. interlace: (使）交织；（使）组合；（使）交错
E.g. In a changing environment,plasticity has to remain flexible, requiring interference between new and existing learning to be minimized, yet it is not known how new and existing learning are interlaced in this way.
38. seek to: 追求, 争取, 设法; assess: 评定；评估；估算
e.g. Here we sought to assess this hypothesis by altering cholinergic activity in the pDMS both chronically, by disconnection of the thalamostriatal pathway, and acutely, using local pharmacological manipulations, and examining the effects of these treatments on (1) initial acquisition of specific actionoutcome associations, (2) sensitivity to the selective degradation of those action-outcome contingencies, and (3) the rats’ ability to encode new action-outcome associations.
37. With regard to: 关于； 至于; documente: 记载；(用文件等)证明
e.g. With regard to goal-directed learning, it is now well documented that encoding the action-outcome associations necessary for goal-directed action depends on the posterior dorsomedial striatum (pDMS)；
36. as such： 照这样； 就这点而论; subject to: 易受 ... 影响的；屈服于 ... 的；让步于 ...；取决于
e.g. Consistent with these views, changes in cholinergic activity do not affect initial learning or retrieval and often only affect new learning induced in the presence of that change; as such, changes in synaptic plasticity appear to depend on cholinergic tone and, in the absence of acetylcholine, new learning is likely to be subject to interference from existing learning, perhaps by increasing contextual uncertainty.
35. capitalize on: 充分利用; exploit :利用，使用，运用
e.g. For goal-directed actions to remain adaptive in a changing environment, animals have to exploit successful actions while continuing to explore new strategies to capitalize on the shifting environmental contingencies.
34. discriminate between : 区分
e.g. Although activity in piriform cortex could be used to discriminate between odorants at any moment in time, odour-evoked responses drifted over periods of days to weeks.
33. pose the question：提出（问题），提议
e.g. This demonstration of continuous drift poses the question of the role of piriform cortex in odour perception.
32. give way to: 让位于； 让步； 代替
e.g. This patterned interneuron activity triggered a transient, presynaptic suppression of cortical input to both major classes of principal medium spiny neuron (MSN) that gave way to a prolonged enhancement of postsynaptic responsiveness in striatopallidal MSNs controlling motor suppression.
31. put forward: 提出
e.g. He forcefully and convincingly put forward the view (which was vaguely suggested by earlier evolution biologists) that it is the survival of genes under natural selection that drives altruistic behaviors.
30. poise: n. 平衡；姿态；镇静 v. 使 ... 平衡；保持 ... 姿势；做准备；盘旋
e.g. Striatal parvalbumin (PV) and cholinergic interneurons (CHIs) are poised to play major roles in behavior by coordinating the networks of medium spiny cells that relay motor output.
29. In line with: 按照； 与 ... 一致
e.g. In line with these observations, optogenetic stimulation of CHIs increased both MSN fluorescence (Supplementary Fig. 11b) and the probability of both MSN activity and MSN–MSN co-activity during laser-on periods.
28. bound to: 必然； 不得不； 必须； 束缚于
e.g. Like the ramping up of dopamine, this is bound to provide the motivation for more work
27. put to rest: To bury someone who has died; to stop or finish discussing, thinking about, or focusing on something
e.g. These data should put to rest the prevailing view that increased activity of dopamine neurons in response to rewards, or to cues that predict reward delivery, causes the broadcast of a dopamine signal to all of the brain regions that these neurons target
26. tease apart:
e.g. Our experiments using visual virtual reality allowed us to tease apart these two possibilities
25. ideally suited
E.g. The ramping dopamine signals that we describe here, providing continuous estimates of how close rewards are to being reached, and weighted by the relative values of the rewards when options are available, seem ideally suited to maintain and direct such extended energy and motivation.
24. in unison: [说话、做事〕一起，一齐
e.g. Dopamine-secreting (dopaminergic) neuronsare special because they are thought to fire in unison, broadcasting a single all-important message widely.
23. albeit: conj. 虽然
e.g. As well as providing evidence for the textbook view that a spike in the activity of dopamine neurons is accompanied by dopamine release, albeit not in all target regions, the unexpected observation of dopamine release in the absence of activity of dopamine neurons provides a new depth of understanding of dopamine signalling in the brain.
22. adapt to:适应
21. Of note: Important, of distinction, famous
20. disparity: 不一致
19. concomitant with: 相伴的；附随的；共存的
18. strive for: 奋斗； 争取
e.g. Finally, while it is computationally attractive to strive for a unifying function, it is worth remembering that several studies in Parkinson’s disease patients have observed two seemingly separable influences of dopamine on reward sensitivity and motor activation.
17. anything but：根本不
e.g. What the Hughes et al. study highlights persuasively is that progress on these issues will best be made when experimenters pay close attention to the behaviours animals exhibit within carefully controlled tasks — as well as the fact that interpreting a ‘simple’ neuronal response to reward is usually anything but simple.
16. fine-grained：有细密纹理的；细颗粒的
e.g. With this in mind, a number of recent studies, including some by the authors here, have begun to make a finer-grained analysis of movement during reward-based tasks, using video tracking, force sensors and accelerometers to relate measurements and manipulations of cell activity to postural changes and action.
15. dispense with: 摒弃； 省掉； 没有 ... 也行
e.g. If A2 were a conditioned excitor, it would have caused positive summation and facilitation of learning, which it did not. Thus, we believe we can dispense with this explanation
14. compatible with: 与 ... 不矛盾； 与 ... 共处； 与 ... 兼容
e.g. The influence of reward context is compatible with the reward nature of phasic dopamine responses.
13. abound: 富于；充满
e.g. However, alternative explanations for these data (particularly the causal evidence) abound, including most prominently the idea that learning driven by artificially induced transients is
12. In accord with: 和…一致
e.g. In accord with the single-dimension hypothesis, it is well known that aversive stimuli suppress the firing of dopamine neurons.
10. Acid test: 严峻的考验； 酸性测试
e.g. Thus, demonstrating that briefly inhibiting dopamine neurons is sufficient to mimic the effects of negative prediction errors provides an acid test of the theory that dopamine neurons actually support associative learning by signaling a bidirectional prediction error such as that envisioned by accounts such as Rescorla-Wagner or temporal difference reinforcement learning.
10. full-fledged：羽毛丰满的；成熟的；完全有资格的 =fully-fledged(英).
e.g. These results support the proposal that brief changes in the firing of dopamine neurons serve as full-fledged bidirectional prediction error signals.
9. run into: 偶然遇见； 总计为； 与 ... 相撞； 与 ... 汇合； 变成
e.g. We may have become used to thinking that every brain system subserves exactly one, and only one, physiological function. We apply this belief to other brain systems and ask what their one single function might be, and then we may run into problems when considering systems outside the primary sensory and motor domains.
8. boil down：浓缩； 把 ... 煮稠； 简缩； 节略
e.g. : Although there are numerous differences between these models, most boil down to three components：regions that encode expectation; regions that encode actual reward; and the subtraction of these inputs at a common downstream target, usually dopamine neurons themselves.
7. funnel into: 汇集成，集中通过小过口。
e.g. Thus, dopamine neurons receive a spectrum of information, including pure reward, pure expectation, mixed reward and expectation, partial RPE, and—in rare cases—complete RPE, all from multiple brain areas. This then gets funneled into a pure RPE signal in dopamine neurons
6. let alone：更别提；不打扰； 不惊动；
e.g. Furthermore, it was not possible to examine whether the recorded neurons were indeed dopamine neurons, let alone how the activity of VTA GABA neurons was altered by the lesions.
5.the lynchpin of sth: 关键人物；
5. lynchpin/ linchpin: /ˈlɪnʃ pɪn/ noun [countable]: 轮辖；关键；轴心人物
e.g. In the future, it will be crucial to analyze flow between input areas as well. For example, although excitatory inputs in multiple areas (VP, LH, and PPTg, to name a few) may trigger phasic responses to rewards and reward-predicting cues in dopamine neurons, VP may be the lynchpin, providing information not just to dopamine neurons but also to these other input regions.
4. at odds with: 与 ... 不和； 与 ... 争吵； 与 ... 不一致
e.g. The term is at odds with current results on the role of dopamine in learning (see below) and reflects an earlier assumption of attentional dopamine function based on an initial phasic response component before distinct dopamine response components were recognized
3. Be rife with: 充满
2. rose-tinted: 玫瑰色的; 乐观的；希望的
e.g. Prior experience shapes the way we view our world. War movies are rife with veterans jumping at the sound of a car door slamming when they return home, and lottery winners mayview life through rose-tinted glasses.
1. devoid of : to be completely lacking in something
e.g. Indeed, a role for LH as an output nucleus devoid of learning is pervasive in many studies that have identified a role for LH in appetitive behaviors.
