What Is Argument?

not a quarrel，or the exchange of opinions between two or more people

Argument, in  this  sense,  means  “the  line  of  reasoning  that  supports  a judgment.”

可以用数学辅助思考，但是argument更复杂。

The Parts of an Argument

1）premises 前提

2）conclusion 结论

The  basic  principles  logicians  use  in  evaluating  arguments  are  as follows:

1. The premises are either true or false (correct or incorrect).

2. The reasoning that links the premises to the conclusion is either valid or invalid. (To be valid, the stated conclusion, and only that conclusion, must follow logically from the premises.)

3. Correct premises plus valid reasoning equal a sound argument.

4. Either an incorrect premise or invalid reasoning will render an argument unsound.

Inappropriate attitudes toward ideas and the reasoning process can also  lead  to  errors  in  argument.比如对第一印象的过于相信会导致你失去批判性思考的能力，想要用证据证明此偏向。但事实上，你最好用possibility代替certainty，比较各种不同的观点，再做出最后的结论。

Evaluating Arguments

判断arguments的重要方法：Decide whether the premises are true or false and whether the reasoning that leads from them to the conclusion is valid.If both criteria are met, the argument is sound.

几个例子，很有趣！用提问的方式，看前提是否正确适用所有范围吗 有个例吗，再看结论是不是从前提合理推出，是否有其他合理的结论？

More Difficult Arguments

不是所有的argument都是clearly、fully stated，下面有几种方法：

1.When an argument is longer than a paragraph, summarize it before asking  and  answering  your  questions.当argument太长的时候，你要总结后再提问。提问的时候要小心别误读。

2.When  you  are  uncertain  which  statements  are  the  premises  and which  is  the  conclusion, ask  yourself  exactly  what  idea  the  person  is trying to get you to accept. (That is the conclusion.) Then ask what reasons are offered in support of that idea. (Those are the premises.)当你无法区分前提和结论，作者想让你接受的观点是结论，那些用于得出、支持该观点的是前提。

3.When  an  argument  contains  more  than  two  premises, ask  and answer your questions about each.simply  take  one  at  a  time. 多个前提，一个个前提来。

4.When you are evaluating opposing arguments, neither of which is persuasive (even if one is technically sound), look for a third alternative. 两个观点都没有说服力，可以思考总结出第三个。

5.When  an  argument  contains  hidden  premises, identify  them  before proceeding with your evaluation. 注意隐藏的前提