Topical Collection on Effects of Landscape Structure on Conservation of Species and Biodiversity
Abstract
Landscape structure and biotic interactions are closely linked. We identify five aspects of landscape structure that contribute to the co-occurrence of species and restrict or enable different types of biotic interactions: patch size and habitat amount,isolation of patches, barriers to dispersal and movement, persistence of landscape structure, and landscape complexity. In addition,these aspects of landscape structure influence the strength and outcome of biotic interactions. Whereas most research focuses on the effects of the abiotic environment on species and their biotic interactions, research on foundation species and ecosystem engineers demonstrates the important influence of biotic interactions on landscape structure itself, including effects on landscape complexity, extent of habitat, and the structure of landscape features. In this review, we describe ecological theories that lay the foundation for interplay between landscape structure and biotic interactions, and summarize these connections across an array of interacting species in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial systems. We end with suggestions for integrating the fields of landscape ecology and community ecology to better understand the connections between landscape structure and biotic interactions and better predict their dynamics in light of global change.
景观结构和生物相互作用密切相关。我们确定了五个方面的景观结构,导致物种的共生和限制或使不同类型的生物相互作用：斑块尺度、栖息地数量、斑块位置、传播和运动阻碍、景观结构的持久性和景观复杂性。此外，这些景观结构方面影响和生物相互作用的力量和结果。然而许多研究集中在非生物环境对物种的影响和他们的生物相互作用，基本物种的调查，生态系统工程师论证生物相互作用对景观结构的重要影响，包括景观复杂性的影响，栖息地的范围，景观的结构特性。在本文中,我们描述的生态理论为景观结构和生物相互作用奠定基础，总结一系列在淡水、海洋和陆地系统相互作用的物种的联系。我们最后建议整合领域的生态景观生态学和社区更好地理解景观结构和生物相互作用之间的联系,更好地预测他们在全球变化的动力学。
Keywords Biotic interactions . Dispersal . Extent . Habitat .Isolation . Metacommunity
Introduction
Biotic interactions are inherently coupled with the structure of landscapes.生物相互作用本质上与景观的结构是结合的。 “Landscape structure” encompasses the composition and spatial arrangement of natural and anthropogenic features over time.“景观结构”包括自然和人为特性的组成和空间排列。 Components of landscape structure—patch size and habitat amount, isolation of patches, barriers to dispersal and movement, persistence of landscape structure, and landscape complexity—interact with ecosystem components. The resultant interactions directly affect species’habitat quality and species–habitat relationships, as well as species co-occurrence. Consequently, landscape structure influences whether species can interact with one another, and thus affects species abundances and traits, which affect the strength of biotic interactions. In turn, biotic interactions also influence landscape structure [1]. Interactions involving ecosystem engineers and foundation species change landscape structure and function in both space and time [2, 3]. At the same time, the dynamic nature of these landscapes is influenced by abiotic and anthropogenic forces [4, 5]. Depending on spatial and temporal scales, landscape structure can affect the occurrence, importance, and outcomes of biotic interactions differently [6–8], and biotic interactions can have varying influence on landscape structure [3, 5, 9].景观结构组成（斑块大小和栖息地数量,斑块孤立,传播和运动障碍,持久性的景观结构和景观的复杂性）与生态系统相互作用。相互作用的结果直接影响物种栖息地质量和物种与栖息地关系，与物种共生等同。结果显示景观结构影响物种之间的相互关系，也影响物种数量和特质。生态学家和基础物种相互作用在时间和空间上改变景观结构和功能。同时，这些景观的动态特征受非生物和人为的力量影响。根据空间和时间尺度,景观结构可以影响发生,重要性,不同的生物相互作用的结果，生物的相互作用对景观结构有不同的的影响。
Here we use “landscape” to encompass terrestrial, marine,and freshwater “scapes” on earth. The movement of organisms,energy, and matter within and among ecosystems of all types is highly dependent on the structure of a landscape. 物质和能量运动以及各种类型的生态系统强烈依赖景观结构。Such structure is often used to define aspects of species–habitat relationships including range sizes and associated physiological limits to occurrence, habitat patch size and species specific connectivity, and physical barriers to dispersal. 这种结构通常是用来定义某些物种，栖息地关系包括尺度大小，相关的生理极限,栖息地的斑块大小和物种特有连接,和物理传播障碍。For fauna and flora, landscape structure affects aspects of movement that are fundamental to species’ fitness and survival,including dispersal, migration, and mobility.We present a synthesis of the connections between landscape structure and biotic interactions, with a focus on studies from the last 10 years. We begin with a discussion of relevant theory and then discuss how landscape structure affects biotic interactions, and how biotic interactions can reciprocally affect landscape structure. We end with recommendations to advance understanding of this interplay, and promote synergy of community ecology and landscape ecology.对于动植物来说，景观结构影响物种的适应性和生存基础的运动，包括分散、迁移和流动。我们聚集近10年的研究，提出了一种景观结构和生物相互作用的联系模型。我们开始讨论有关理论,然后讨论景观结构如何影响生物的相互作用,生物相互作用如何相互地影响景观结构。最后我们建议提前了解这个相互作用,并促进社区生态学和景观生态学的协同作用。
Theory
Several theories provide important context for understanding the connections between landscape structure and biotic interactions.We discuss three theories that have especially advanced understanding of this interplay相互作用: niche theory, the theory of island biogeography, and metacommunity theory.生态位理论、岛屿生物地理学理论和 集合群落理论。
One of the first examples of the interplay between landscape structure and biotic interactions is found in niche theory.The Grinnellian and Eltonian niche concepts describe the effect of the environment on a species occurrence [10], and the effect of a species on its environment [11].生态位概念描述了环境对一个物种发生的影响以及物种对环境的影响。The niche concept was further defined in terms of biotic interactions and landscape structure in Hutchinson’s realized niche (see [12] where “biotop space” refers to landscape structure). Hutchinson’s realized niche represents the conditions for the occurrence and positive population growth rate of a species as a function of its habitat (including landscape structure) and biotic interactions[12, 13]. 生态位概念进一步定义生物相互作用和景观结构。生态位代表着发生的条件和积极的人口增长率Originally, the realized niche was described as a function of competition reducing the occurrence of a species to its realized niche from its fundamental niche, but now other types of interactions (positive interactions) are also recognized as affecting the realized niche [14] and could even expand it beyond the fundamental niche [15]. Today, niche theory is widely applied in species distribution modeling[16, 17], yet such models focus largely on abiotic drivers and rarely explicitly model pairwise or multi-species interaction relationships [18–20].最初，生态位被描述为 竞争减少物种的出现 基础生态位。。。。。。今天,生态位理论广泛应用于物种分布模型,然而这些模型主要关注非生物驱动程序，很少明确模型成对或多物种互动关系。
Another classic foundational theory that incorporates landscape structure and biotic interactions and largely stimulated the fields of landscape and spatial ecology is the theory of island biogeography [21]. 另一个经典的基本理论是结合景观结构和生物相互作用和很大程度上刺激景观和生态的理论空间岛屿生物地理学The theory of island biogeographyexplores colonization and extinction dynamics of island communities
as a function of island size and distance from mainland.
The theory was first tested in mangrove islets [22] and
has since been applied to “islands” in a broad sense to understand
the assembly, maintenance, and disassembly of ecological
communities in naturally patchy habitat islands (e.g.,
[23]), habitat islands created through fragmentation (e.g.,
[24]) and habitat loss [25], and preserves that can be considered
islands in a sea of unconserved land
