Summary
What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions?
A particular position is usually proved by consistent reasons. Therefore, most arguments“make sense”at first glance. But the truth is some hidden or unstated beliefs are neglected not necessarily by accident. The author of course has his reason and right not to clarify such beliefs, but we readers have to find them when reading between the lines.
These ideas are important invisible links in the reasoning structure, the glue that holds the entire argument together.
The necessity of such links should seem obvious. Without such links, how could one decide which of thousands of ideas qualify as reasons? Until you supply these links, you cannot truly understand the argument.
In general, we must discover the hidden maneuvers, which are unstated ideas or beliefs in arguments, refering to these unstated ideas as assumptions.
Assumptions are:
1. hidden or unstated (in most cases);
2. taken for granted;
3. influential in determining the conclusion; and
4. potentially deceptive.
Remember to look for both value and descriptive assumptions in the movement from reasons to the conclusions.
A value assumption is an implicit preference for one value over another in a particular context. We use value preferences and value priorities as synonyms.
There are some clues for discovering descriptive assumptions.
Thought
If you miss the hidden links, you will often find yourself believing some-thing that, had you been more reflective, you would never have accepted. Remember: The visible surface of an argument will almost always be dressed in its best clothes because the person presenting the argument wishes to encourage you to make the argument your own. This chapter can be par-ticularly useful to you as a critical thinker because it prepares you to look at the full argument, not just its more attractive features. Your mind is taking its time, creating the components of the argument that the person offering it probably wishes to hide from you.
说个题外话,我想借作者的这段话说说批判性思考的重要性。这几次的笔记是在颠簸上的大巴上一字一句打出来的,因为刚好赶上来云南旅游,旅途诸多不愉快,读到这一段特别有感触。要说的话其实很简单,那就是批判性思维能让人远离被洗脑的命运,需要学习的不仅是读书人,全中国人都需要。
生活中洗脑的事件常发生得不知不觉,比如传销,比如高利贷,比如旅游购物。我们来云南玩,虽然要求的是无购物旅行团,但洗脑和购物无处不在(的确没强制我们,但言语的煽动性极其厉害)。主要论点就以下几个:
1、这东西治百病,我们的病都是这样治好的。我这么健康,全靠它。
2、这东西纯天然,绝对不是假货;
3、这东西保值,增值速度非常快,买到就是赚到。
当导购导游说这些东西的时候,听者听上去都是有理的,下车了,心甘情愿地购买,红了眼。由这些论点(reasons)得出的结论(conclusion)就是:这个东西,值得它现在的价钱。真的吗?很多游客忽略了,导游没有说的是:
1、这东西治病,但不和现代医学相悖。这个东西能治的病,现代医学一样能轻松治好。所谓的无副作用,不一定真的就没有副作用。
(我们先假设这个东西真的“治百病”,事实上是没有什么东西能能真的治百病,现在医学无能为力的,这个东西也起不了什么作用。)
2、纯天然不假,但外面买的东西就真的是假货吗?顾客真的有必要几百块钱的普洱茶,几千的银镯子,几万的玉石吗?全中国只有这里是真货吗?
(我们也先假设这个东西是“真的”,现在云南旅游局已经很给力了,假货高价的货物少很多了。但导游狠毒,为了避免顾客问这些问题,会先摧毁游客的人生观价值观,告诉游客他生命中的一切都是值得怀疑的,但导游我说的话你们完全可以信任。这也是职业洗脑人必备的技能)
3、这东西保值,但没人收购兑换成人民币就是一个东西而已。“价值”和“使用价值”不共存,买来后就是放弃了价值拥有了使用价值。而且这个使用价值值得怀疑,有些人花费万元购置了玉石银器,买回家也就是放在了抽屉里,不会天天佩戴吧?也不会带来收入吧?现在导购员还会和一些看上去并不富裕的家庭说:“这件首饰可以作为传家宝传下去。”细思恐极,年收入不上万的低收入家庭,被这样一忽悠,搞不好庄稼不收成就只能盯着一件无用的首饰吃不饱饭。
(我们还是假设这个东西是“有价值的”,而且这个价值没有被抬高,没有虚高。事实上这也是不可能的。云南旅行社爱去的地方,就是这些东西价格翻倍的地方。顾客买了大家都好赚钱,走过旅行团的消费者应该都懂)。
这些话随便讲讲大家都懂,但为什么这么多游客上当受骗,就是因为在导游说这些的时候,游客很少辩证地思考他讲述的内容。中式教育的一大弊端就是它是让学生被动地接受知识,虽然有提问,但问的不是论点本身,而是论点内容,并自然而然接受结论。长久以往,祸患无穷。
辩证思考说起来容易做起来难,这是一种习惯而不是一种技能。大家遇到问题都去想想为什么、思考一下它的合理性,做一个辩证思考的人而不是观点的接受者。不要被动地全盘接受他人的观点,也不要恪守自己的观点不变通。既要聆听,也要质疑。