Week 2 – Reading Section

2.1 Challenges of Reading

2.1.1 Reading and you

1. 至少读3-4遍才能读懂

2. 单词很重要
3. 阅读时跳过不懂的单词
4. 用自己的话记笔记

Focus of this week:

• Question Types
• Reading Tips
• Practice Questions

2.1.2 Features of Academic Reading

Academic Text

• Social Sciences
• Arts
• Physical Sciences
• Life Sciences

Three KEY characteristic features of Academic Texts

1. Formal Language

• Few Contractions or abbreviation
• Specialized vocabulary
• No idioms or slang expression
• Formal grammar

2. Logical and Objective

• Based on facts
• Impersonal tone
• Does't appeal to emotions

3. Conceptually complex

• Muitidimensional ideas
• Interconnected parts

2.2 About the Reading Section

2.2.1 About the Reading Section

The first section of the TOEFL iBT® test is the Reading section.

This section uses reading passages from university-level textbooks that introduce a topic. The passages may have been changed slightly to make them appropriate for testing purposes, but they are real academic materials.

Topics of the reading passages can vary, but you do not need to have any prior knowledge of the topics. Everything you need to know to answer the questions is in the passages, because the questions are testing your English skills, not your knowledge of the topic.

There are 3 or 4 reading passages of about 700 words each. For each passage, there are 12 to 14 multiple-choice questions.

Most questions have four choices and a single correct answer. Some questions ask you to select two or more correct answers from a larger group of choices.

You will have 60 to 80 minutes to complete the Reading section. During that time, you can return to previous questions to review or change your answers.

You will learn more details about the Reading section this week through a series of videos about the different Reading question types.

2.2.2 How to Approach a TOEFL iBT Reading Passage

Reading

• Identify the topic
• Skim the passage

Stratiges:

Take a glance at the first few sentences of the first paragraph. These sentences form the introduction and usually give the reader an idea of what is to come.

Then take a look at the first sentence of each of the other paragraphs. These sentences often provide information about the main point, or points, in each paragraph. At this stage, you should have an impression of what the main topic of the passage is.

As well as an understanding of some of the key ideas to be discussed.You should also have an impression about the author's intent.
Is the author explaining a phenomenon, or presenting opposing points of view? What is the main purpose of the text you're reading?

While you skim, pay attention to the structure, or organization of the passage.

• Take notes/Creat an outline

• Read the questions
• Scan for key words
• Answer the questions as well as you can

2.2.3 Tips

There are several key skills that you’ll need to be successful in the Reading section. You should be able to:

*1. Synthesize information presented in the text *

    This means that you can read chunks of text and identify main ideas being expressed. You should be able to draw connections between individual sentences and paraphrase the information that is presented.

2. Identify the author’s rhetorical purpose

    When you read a piece of information, you should be able to understand why the author has included it. Is it an example of a phenomenon, a supporting detail for an argument, or perhaps the introduction of a new idea? Understanding the structure of each paragraph and the whole passage is critical to understanding its contents.

3. Scan the text to find specific pieces of information

    In order to put together the big picture about what’s going on in a passage, you will also need to comprehend the little pieces that fit together to make that big picture. It is important to be able to quickly locate a sentence or portion of a paragraph that discusses a particular point. Once you’ve found that sentence, you can re-read it in order to understand exactly what is being expressed.

4. Understand academic vocabulary used in the passage

    A newspaper or magazine article might use more everyday language—the sort of thing you hear in conversations and read in emails. But an academic text, regardless of the subject, contains certain vocabulary that is standard in academic discourse. This might be words related to presenting theories: "propose", "hypothesis", "scenario". Or it could be words that connect two sentences: "however", "in addition", "thus". A good reader should be familiar with this vocabulary.

2.3 Factual/Negative Factual Information Questions

Factual Information and Negative Factual Information questions ask about facts, details, definitions or other information presented by the author.

Factual Information

• Major ideas
• Supporting details
• Definitions

The Way to Ask You The Questions

• *According to the paragraph, XXX...
• Paragraph X answers which of the following?*

Negative Factual Information

• 3 of 4 answers are true, Which one is FALSE?

The Way to Ask You The Questions

• According to the paragraph, which of the following is NOT true

• The author metions all of the following EXCEPT?

Tips to answer Factul/Negative Factual Information

1. Don't automatically select an answer just because it contains words or phrases from the paragraph.
   Make sure you carefully evaluate each option to determine if it is correct.

2. For the negative factual information questions, remember that you're looking for an answer that either isn't in the paragraph, or directly contradicts information in the paragraph.

Sample Questions

Sample 1

The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact.This sediment layer is enriched in the rare metal iridium and other elements that are relatively abundant in a meteorite but very rare int he crust of Earth. Even diluted by the terrestrial material excavated from the crater, this component of meteorites is easily identified. By 190 geologists had located the impact site itself in the Yucatan region of Mexico. The Crater, now deeply buried in sediment, was originally about 200 kilometers in diameter.

Question:

• According to paragraph 3 (the sample cut above), how did scientists determine that a large meteorite had impacted Earth?

  A.(  ) They discovered a large crater in the Yucatan region of Mexico.
  B.(  ) They found a unique layer of sediment worlwide.
  C.(  ) They were alerted by archaeologists who had been excavating in the Yucatan region.
  D.(  ) They located a meteorite with a mass of over a trillion tons.
  

Sample 2

This imact released an enormous amount of energy, excavating a crater about twice as large as the lunar crater Tycho. The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface. Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months. The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have comsumed most terristrial forests and grassland. Presumably, those environmental disasters could hava been responsible for the mass extinction, including the death of the dinosaurs.

Question:

• According to the paragraph 4, all of the following statements are true of the impact at the end of the Cretaceous period EXCEPT:

  A.(  ) A large amount of dust blocked sunlight from Earth.
  B.(  ) Earth became could and dark for several months.
  C.(  ) New elements were formed in Earth's crust.
  D.(  ) Large quantities of nitric acid were produced.
  

Resource : ETS Official Sample Questions - Reading Section: 《Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction》

Skill Building Tips:

Taking notes

• What is important, relevant or crediable?
• Keep the notes short to help you remember important facts.

2.4 Inference and Rhetorical Purpose Questions

Inference questions ask about ideas and arguments that are not explicitly stated in the text.

Rhetorical Purpose questions are similar. They ask about why the author presents a piece of information.

Inference: Not explicitly stated

The Way to Ask You The Questions

• Which of the following can be inferred from paragrah X about XX?
• The author of the paragrah implies that XXX...
• paragrah X suggests which of the following about XX?

Rhetorical Purpose: Also not stated explicitly

The Way to Ask You The Questions

• Why does the author mention XXX?

Eliminate(排除) wrong answers if you can't identify the correct answers immediately

Sample Questions

Sample 1

The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact.This sediment layer is enriched in the rare metal iridium and other elements that are relatively abundant in a meteorite but very rare int he crust of Earth. Even diluted by the terrestrial material excavated from the crater, this component of meteorites is easily identified. By 190 geologists had located the impact site itself in the Yucatan region of Mexico. The Crater, now deeply buried in sediment, was originally about 200 kilometers in diameter.

Question:

• Which of the following can be inferred from paragrah 3 about the location of the meeteorite impact in Mexico?

  A.(     ) The location of the impact site in Mexico was kept secret by geologists from 1980 to 1990.
  B.(     ) It was a well-known fact that the impact had occourred in the Yucatan region.
  C.( √ ) Geologists knew that there had been an impact before they knew where it had occourred.
  D.(    ) The Yucatan region was chosen by geologists as the most probable impact site because of its climate.
  

Sample 2

If an impact is large enough, it can disturb the environment of the entire Earth and cause an ecological catastrophe. The best-documented such impact took place 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period of geological history. This break in Earth’s history is marked by a mass extinction, when as many as half the species on the planet became extinct. While there are a dozen or more mass extinctions in the geological record, the Cretaceous mass extinction has always intrigued paleontologists because it marks the end of the age of the dinosaurs. For tens of millions of years, those great creatures had flourished. Then, suddenly, they disappeared.

Question

• In paragraph 2, why does the author include the information that dinosaurs had flourished for tens of millions of years and then suddenly disappeared?

   a.  To support the claim that the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous  is the best-documented of the dozen or so mass extinctions in the geological record.
  
   b.  To explain why as many as half of the species on Earth at the time are believed to have become extinct at the end of the Cretaceous.
  
   c.  To explain why paleontologists have always been intrigued by the mass extinction at the end of the  Cretaceous.
  
   d.  To provide evidence that an impact can be large enough to disturb the  environment of the entire planet and cause an ecological disaster.
  

Skill Building Tips:

Skimming: Readin quickly to identify major points

1. Reading the Introductory paragraph (usually paragraph 1).
2. Reading the first sentence of each middle paragraphs.
3. Reading the concluding paragraph (usually the last paragraph).

When practicing, try reading a passage twice:

1. Skimming to get the main ideas.
2. Reading the article carefully to see if you really did get those main ideas.

Rhetorical Purpose KEY words

• to illustrate (举例，阐述)
• to explain
• to contrast (对比)
• to refute (反驳，驳斥)
• to note (特别提到，指出)
• to support

2.5 Vocabulary Questions

Vocabulary questions measure whether you know the meaning of important words in a reading passage.

Vocabulary

identify the meanings of wordsand phrases as they are used in the reading passage.

There will be a word or phrase highlighted in the reading passage,

The Way to Ask You The Questions

• The word "X" in the passage is closest in meaning to ...
• The phrase "X" in the passage is closest in meaning to ...
• In stating "X", the author means that ...

Sample: Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction

There is increasing evidence that the impacts of meteorites have had important effects on Earth, particularly in the field of biological evolution. Such impacts continue to pose a natural hazard to life on Earth. Twice in the twentieth century, large meteorite objects are known to have collided with Earth.

1. The word “pose” on line 4 is closest in
   meaning to

a. claim

b. model

c. assume

d. present

The answer is d, present.

The words that are tested are academic vocabulary that you should know if your English is at the level of a university student. They are not usually words that you can guess from context.

So the best general strategy to be ready for this type of questions is to build your vocabulary.

Defference Between Academic & Specialized Vocabulary

Skill Building Tips

Find the Root
Latin and Greek roots of English words

2.6 Reference Questions

Reference questions look similar to Vocabulary questions. A word or phrase is highlighted in the passage, and you are asked what that word refers to.

Usually the word is a pronoun, like “she,” “they” or “it”.

It could also be a relative pronoun, like “which,” “that” or “whom”.

Here's an example of a Reference question, including the excerpt from the passage with the highlighted word.

In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them.

The word "them" in the passage refers to:

A. emotions

B. people

C. photographs

D. cultures

The answer is C, photographs.

The sample question is from page 244 of The Official Guide to the TOEFL® Test, Fourth Edition.(OG 第四版)

2.7 Sentence Simplification Questions

Sentence Simplification questions ask you to choose a sentence with the same meaning as a given sentence.

• Mean: Correct answer contains the main ideas restated in a simpler way.
• Recognize: " Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the following sentence? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information."

The highlighted sentence will have both essential and non-essential information.
Your job is to pick the answer choice that best includes the essential information and leaves out the non-essential information.

Answering this type of question will require you to understand the relationship between the pieces of information in the sentence.

Often, there is an important cause/effect relationship, or there may be a conclusion based on some evidence.
So look for those same ideas in the answer choices.

Skill Building Tips

Identify Main Ideas
Which will also help you answer sentence simplification questions, is to look at complex sentences or paragraphs, and separate the main ideas from less important information.

Non-essential information can be things like examples, or text in parentheses, or very specific information like numbers or dates.

2.8 Insert Text Questions

For Insert Text questions, you are given a new sentence and asked where in the passage it would best fit. These questions require you to understand the logic of the passage and the grammatical connections between sentences.

Recognize

The Insert Text questions are designed to show that you understand the logical order of ideas in a reading passage.

Every reading passage has one Insert Text question.

But instead of choosing from a list of 4 choices, like with most Reading questions, to insert the text into the paragraph.

Sample

Look at the four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage in paragraph 6.

** This is the criterion emphasized by Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Where would the sentence best fit?**

Impacts by meteorites represent one mechanism that could cause global catastrophes and seriously influence the evolution of life all over the planet.

• (A) According to some estimates, the majority of all extinctions of species may be due to such impacts.
• (B) Such a perspective fundamentally changes our view of biological evolution.
• (C) The standard criterion for the survival of a species is its success in competing with other species and adapting to slowly changing
  environments.
• (D) Yet an equally important criterion is the ability of a species to survive random global ecological catastrophes due to
  impacts.

*Choose the place where the sentence fits best. **

a. Option A

b. Option B

c. Option C

d. Option D

Skill Building Tips

Know Your Pronouns(代词)

• this / these
• that / those
• they / them
• he / she / it
• him / her / its
• which / who / whom

2.9 Prose Summary and Fill in a Table Questions

Prose Summary questions ask you to select the major ideas from a passage by distinguishing them from minor points or ideas that are not in the passage. Fill in a Table questions ask you to correctly categorize facts presented in the passage.

Recognize

• Major ideas and relative importance of information in a reading passage.
• 6 answer choices, select 3 correct choices express the most important ideas.
• The incorrect answer choices will misrepresent information in the passage or will discuss minor points.

Score up to 2 points

The Fill In A Table questions are similar except that instead of choosing the three most important ideas, you will need to drag and drop your answers into two (or three) categories. Each reading passage will have one Prose Summary question, or one Fill In A Table Question, but not both.

Sample

Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction

There is increasing evidence that the impacts of meteorites have had important effects on Earth, particularly in the field of biological evolution. Such impacts continue to pose a natural hazard to life on Earth. Twice in the twentieth century, large meteorite objects are known to have collided with Earth.

If an impact is large enough, it can disturb the environment of the entire Earth and cause an ecological catastrophe. The best-documented such impact took place 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period of geological history. This break in Earth’s history is marked by a mass extinction, when as many as half the species on the planet became extinct. While there are a dozen or more mass extinctions in the geological record, the Cretaceous mass extinction has always intrigued paleontologists because it marks the end of the age of the dinosaurs. For tens of millions of years, those great creatures had flourished. Then, suddenly, they disappeared.

The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact. This sediment layer is enriched in the rare metal iridium and other elements that are relatively abundant in a meteorite but very rare in the crust of Earth. Even diluted by the terrestrial material excavated from the crater, this component of meteorites is easily identified. By 1990 geologists had located the impact site itself in the Yucatán region of Mexico. The crater, now deeply buried in sediment, was originally about 200 kilometers in diameter.

This impact released an enormous amount of energy, excavating a crater about twice as large as the lunar crater Tycho. The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface. Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months. The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. Presumably, those environmental disasters could have been responsible for the mass extinction, including the death of the dinosaurs.

Several other mass extinctions in the geological record have been tentatively identified with large impacts, but none is so dramatic as the Cretaceous event. But even without such specific documentation, it is clear that impacts of this size do occur and that their results can be catastrophic. What is a catastrophe for one group of living things, however, may create opportunities for another group. Following each mass extinction, there is a sudden evolutionary burst as new species develop to fill the ecological niches opened by the event.

Impacts by meteorites represent one mechanism that could cause global catastrophes and seriously influence the evolution of life all over the planet. According to some estimates, the majority of all extinctions of species may be due to such impacts. Such a perspective fundamentally changes our view of biological evolution. The standard criterion for the survival of a species is its success in competing with other species and adapting to slowly changing environments. Yet an equally important criterion is the ability of a species to survive random global ecological catastrophes due to impacts.

Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subject to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. In 1991 the United States Congress asked NASA to investigate the hazard posed today by large impacts on Earth. The group conducting the study concluded from a detailed analysis that impacts from meteorites can indeed be hazardous. Although there is always some risk that a large impact could occur, careful study shows that this risk is quite small.

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Write your answer choices in the spaces where they belong. You can write in the number of the answer choice or the whole sentence.

| Scientists have linked the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous with a meteorite impact on Earth.|
|-------------------|-------------------|
|• |
|• |
|• |

Answer choices

(1) Scientists had believed for centuries that meteorite activity influenced evolution on Earth.

(2) The site of the large meteorite impact at the end of the Cretaceous period was identified in 1990.

(3) There have also been large meteorite impacts on the surface of the Moon, leaving craters like Tycho.

(4) An iridium-enriched sediment layer and a large impact crater in the Yucatán provide evidence that a large meteorite struck Earth about 65 million years ago.

(5) Large meteorite impacts, such as one at the end of the Cretaceous period, can seriously affect climate, ecological niches, plants, and animals.

(6) Meteorite impacts can be advantageous for some species, which thrive, and disastrous for other species, which become extinct.

The answer is 4,5,6.

Skill Building Tips

Creating Outlines

As you practice more, you will be able to take fewer notes to outline the points.

2.10 How the Reading Section is Scored

The Reading section of the test contains multiple-choice tasks for which test takers must select the correct answer.

图片

2.11 Reading Practice Test

2.11.1 Reading Practice Test Directions

This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English.

There is one passage in this practice test. Give yourself 20 minutes to read the passage and answer the questions about it.

You may look back at the passage when answering the questions. You can skip questions and go back to them later as long as there is time remaining.

Please note:

Your performance on this practice test is not a predictor of how you might perform on the actual TOEFL iBT® test. Although the practice questions are real TOEFL iBT questions, the testing experience has been adapted for presentation in this course.

Your scores for this practice test will show correct vs. incorrect choices. You will also see an explanation for why each answer choice is correct or incorrect. Scores and scoring information are for preparation use only; they are not official or scaled scores.

2.11.2 Reading Practice Test

Directions: Read the passage. Then answer the questions. Give yourself 20 minutes to complete this practice set.

Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia

MAP_Of_Eurasia.GIF

Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3,000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region’s history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.

The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: “The more animals you have, the farther you have to move.”

Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.

Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.

Questions

Directions: Now answer the questions.

Paragraph 1

Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3,000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region’s history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world.

Questions 1 through 3

• 3 points possible (graded)

Question 1
The word "prestige" in the passage is closest in meaning to

• A. interest
• B. status
• C. demand
• D. profit

Question 2
According to paragraph 1, what made it possible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism to become the most mobile and militaristic form of pastoralism?

• A. It involved the domestication of several types of animals.
• B. It was based primarily on horses rather than on other animals.
• C. It borrowed and improved upon European ideas for mobility and warfare.
• D. It could be adapted to a wide variety of environments.

Question 3
The word "profound" in the passage is closest in meaning to

• A. strange
• B. positive
• C. direct
• D. far-reaching

Paragraph 2

The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: “The more animals you have, the farther you have to move.”

Questions 4 through 5

• 2 points possible (graded)

Question 4
In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists?

• A. To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs
• B. To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies
• C. To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism
• D. To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism

Question 5
According to paragraph 2, pastoralists tend to

• A. prefer grazing their animals on agricultural lands
• B. consume comparatively large amounts of food and clothing
• C. avoid eating plant foods
• D. move from place to place frequently

Paragraph 3

Nomadism has further consequences. It means that pastoralist societies occupy and can influence very large territories. This is particularly true of the horse pastoralism that emerged in the Inner Eurasian steppes, for this was the most mobile of all major forms of pastoralism. So, it is no accident that with the appearance of pastoralist societies there appear large areas that share similar cultural, ecological, and even linguistic features. By the late fourth millennium B.C., there is already evidence of large culture zones reaching from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia. Perhaps the most striking sign of mobility is the fact that by the third millennium B.C., most pastoralists in this huge region spoke related languages ancestral to the modern Indo-European languages. The remarkable mobility and range of pastoral societies explain, in part, why so many linguists have argued that the Indo-European languages began their astonishing expansionist career not among farmers in Anatolia (present-day Turkey), but among early pastoralists from Inner Eurasia. Such theories imply that the Indo-European languages evolved not in Neolithic (10,000 to 3,000 B.C.) Anatolia, but among the foraging communities of the cultures in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers, which took up stock breeding and began to exploit the neighboring steppes.

Questions 6 through 9

• 4 points possible (graded)

Question 6
In paragraph 3, why does the author discuss languages spoken in the region spanning from Eastern Europe to the western borders of Mongolia?

• A. To emphasize the frequency with which Indo-European languages changed as a result of the mobile nature of pastoralism
• B. To indicate one method linguists use to determine that inhabitants of the Don and Dnieper river area had taken up stock breeding
• C. To provide evidence that Indo-European languages have their roots in what is now Turkey
• D. To provide evidence that pastoralist societies can exercise cultural influence over a large area

Question 7
The word "striking" in the passage is closest in meaning to

• A. reliable
• B. noticeable
• C. convincing
• D. violent

Question 8
According to paragraph 3, the great mobility and range of pastoral societies have caused a debate as to

• A. where the first Indo-European speakers lived
• B. how far Indo-European speakers expanded into Anatolia
• C. when exactly foragers took up livestock breeding in the Don and Dnieper areas
• D. whether Indo-European languages originated in the Neolithic period

Question 9
The word "exploit" in the passage is closest in meaning to

• A. use to advantage
• B. depart from
• C. pay attention to
• D. travel across

Paragraph 4

Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. **Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. ***

Questions 10 through 12

• 3 points possible (graded)

Question 10
According to paragraph 4, the fact that pastoralist communities are subject to “strict rules of portability” encourages such communities to

• A. relocate less frequently than they would otherwise
• B. have households that are more or less equal in wealth
• C. become self-sufficient in the manufacture of silk and jewelry
• D. share large material surpluses with neighboring communities

Question 11
According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of social inequality in pastoralist societies EXCEPT:

• A. It exists and has existed to some degree in most pastoral societies.
• B. It is most marked during periods of military conquest.
• C. It is expressed in the form of a rigid hierarchy based largely on heredity.
• D. It is usually too insignificant to be discussed in terms of class differences.

Question 12
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

• A. Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status.
• B. Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military.
• C. Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.
• D. In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do.

Paragraph 4

Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. (A) If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. (B) Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). (C) So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. (D) Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.

Questions 13 through 14

• 2 points possible (graded)

Question 13
Directions: Look at the part of the passage that is displayed above. The letters (A), (B), (C), and (D) indicate where the following sentence could be added.

There is a good reason for this.

Where would the sentence best fit?

• A. Choice A
• B. Choice B
• C. Choice C
• D. Choice D

Question 14
Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

On the actual TOEFL iBT® test, this question will be worth 2 points and you will drag and drop your answer choices into the summary box. For this practice test, make your selections below.

|By 3,000 B.C., a distinctive form of pastoralism had appeared on the steppes of Inner Eurasia.|
|-------------------|-------------------|
|• |
|• |
|• |

• A. The domesticated horse is primarily responsible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism’s success in mobility and warfare.
• B. Because pastoralism requires a great deal of land to support its animal-based lifeway, pastoralists must continually relocate and have comparatively egalitarian societies.
• C. As pastoralists traveled across large areas of terrain with their domesticated animals, they traded valuable material goods such as silks and jewelry.
• D. Most scholars now believe that Indo-European languages probably evolved during the Neolithic period in the region of the Don and Dnieper rivers.
• E. Because pastoralists are highly mobile, they tend to have few material possessions and can influence the culture, ecology, and language of very large areas.
• F. Pastoralist communities do not have social classes in the usual sense because they value spiritual attainment over material wealth.

2.12 Practice Activities and Resources

Practice

Pick two of the following activities and complete them on your own. These activities are based on the tips presented in the Inside the TOEFL® Test videos.

1. Do an online search to find a list of common Greek and Latin roots, such as 60+ Greek and Latin Prefixes Arranged by Meaning (opens new window). Pick 5 roots, and find the definitions of at least 3 words that use each root.

2. Select an article such as "The Heartbreak That May Have Inspired the Telegraph (opens new window)” about Samuel Morse, and outline the main points using one of the outline formats shown at the end of the Prose Summary/Fill in a Table video.

3. Using the Reading passages from TOEFL iBT Quick Prep Volume 2 (opens new window) (pages 4-5 and 10-11), select a paragraph to read. As you read, make a list of what information is important, and what is not as important. Have a partner do the same thing separately, then compare your lists.

4. Using "The Heartbreak That May Have Inspired the Telegraph (opens new window)", find all of the pronouns that aren't "he" (since most of those obviously refer to Samuel Morse), and determine what nouns they refer to. For example, in this excerpt, you can find the pronoun "it" and determine that it refers to "the invention".

Soon, all types of news and messages were being tapped out across the country. The invention transformed communication, business, and the idea of news. It sped up the world, cutting the delivery of a message from Washington, D.C., to New Haven from four days to under four seconds.

Resources

If you’re looking to practice more and would like additional reading materials that have some similarities to TOEFL® Reading passages in tone and content, here are a few examples (the links will take you outside of the course and the edX platform):

Articles about archaeology from Smithsonian Magazine:

• http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/archaeology/ (opens new window)

News articles about science and culture from National Geographic:

• http://news.nationalgeographic.com/ (opens new window)

An Encyclopedia Britannica article about the history and techniques of mountain climbing:

• http://www.britannica.com/topic/mountaineering (opens new window)

Also, check out these reading survival guides from a university in Australia:

• http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/2748132/IE5-Reading-in-English.pdf (opens new window)
• http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/2748143/TN3-Read-effectively.pdf (opens new window)

TOEFL Prep Offer

The TOEFL® program is offering an exclusive discount on additional official preparation materials to participants in the “TOEFL Test Preparation: The Insider’s Guide” course.

Receive 25% off any TOEFL® Practice Online products at toeflpractice.ets.org (opens new window) through July 24, 2016 by using the following promotional code during checkout:

• TOEFLM201606edX

For targeted practice of the Reading section, we recommend the Reading and Listening Practice Tests (opens new window), which can be purchased from Group 4.

Be sure to check the technical requirements before ordering.

All TOEFL® Practice Online products give you the experience of the real TOEFL iBT® test. They are scored by computer, and results are available within 24 hours.

2.13 This Week in Review and Getting Ready for Week 3

Subtitle Scripts:

Over the course of this week,
we showed you an insider's view of the reading section.
We started the week by looking at the features
of an academic reading,
and we showed you some examples
of readings you can expect to see on test day
and in a university classroom.
We learned that academic texts
generally use formal language
and present material in logical and objective ways.
We also talked about how to approach a reading passage,
providing you with tips to help with academic reading.
An important technique we talked about this week
was skimming.
It's also important to remember
that it's not necessary to understand
every detail of a reading passage.
What is important is that you understand
the main ideas.
Throughout this week we learned about
the different question types
in the reading section of the TOEFL test.
These include fact and vocabulary questions,
inference questions and sentence simplification questions.
Finally, we ended the week by practicing
with real questions from past TOEFL tests.
Next week we'll focus on the
listening section of the test
with your instructor, Insook.
You'll learn about the question types
in the listening section and we'll share tips
to help you improve your listening skills.
Be sure to ask us any questions you have about listening
in the discussion board.
An example of a question could be,
"How do I identify important information while listening?"
We'll see you next week.

In week 3, we will cover the Listening section of the TOEFL iBT® test. To prepare, join the discussion to share your questions and concerns about the Listening section.

Ready to register for the test? Start here (opens new window).

If you are testing in China (except Hong Kong and Macau) please visit the NEEA Registration Site (opens new window).

总结：所有的信息题，答案或者答案的线索，全部都要从原文中找，不能主观臆测。原文中一定有Supporting Details！