You will be less likely to shift the burden of proof if you learn to
expect your ideas to be questioned and criticized and prepare to support
them before you express them.
Straw Man
The term straw man was coined by logicians to denote an argument without substance. The term shares its meaning with the word scarecrow, a pile
of straw stuffed in human clothing and placed in a garden or field to scare
away birds. To commit the error of straw man is to put false words in
someone else’s mouth and then expose their falsity, conveniently forgetting that the other person never said them. Suppose you are discussing with a friend whether the sale of assault weapons should be banned and the conversation goes as follows:
You: I oppose any restriction on the sale of guns. It should make no difference whether we’re talking about a pistol,a rifle, a shotgun, or an assault weapon. A gun is a gun.And a constitutional right is a constitutional right.
Your friend: You say it “should make no difference” what kind of
gun is involved. I say it should make a difference because the guns you mentioned are very different from one another. Assault weapons are unlike other kinds of guns—they are not designed for hunting, or even for self-defense, but only for killing people, often indiscriminately. That’s why they should be banned.
如果你学着期待你的观点被提问，被批判，并准备在你表达它们后支持它们，你就不太可能转移举证责任。
稻草人
“稻草人”一词是逻辑学家发明的，指的是没有实质内容的论点。这个词和稻草人一词共享了含义，指的是一堆装在人体衣服里的稻草，放在花园或田里，用来吓跑鸟。犯稻草人的错误是将错误词汇放入他人的口中随后揭露它们的错误，很容易忘记对方从来没有说过它们。假设你在和一个朋友讨论是否攻击型武器的售卖应被禁止，对话如下进行：
你：我反对任何对售卖枪支的限制。无论我们讨论手枪，来福枪，射机枪或者一个攻击型武器都不应有什么不同。一支枪就是一支枪。宪法权利就是宪法权利。
你朋友：你说“不应该有什么不同”，任何种类的枪都包含在内。我说应该不一样因为你提到的枪都每支尽不相同。攻击型武器不像枪支中的其他种类——它们不是为打猎设计的，或者甚至不是为了自我防卫，只是用来杀人而已，经常是无意识的。这就是为什么它们应该被禁。
