摘要：描述观点的重要性

1. One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is …
2. It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the …
3. X is the leading cause of death in western industrialised countries.
4. X is a common disorder characterised by …
5. Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and …
6. Xs are the most potent anti-inflammatory agents known.
7. X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y.
8. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for…
9. In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in …
10. The issue of X has received considerable critical attention.
11. X is a major public health problem, and the cause of about 4% of the global burden of disease.
12. X is an increasingly important area in applied linguistics.
13. Central to the entire discipline of X is the concept of …
14. X is at the heart of our understanding of …

摘要：强调该研究领域的一个重要问题

1. However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect …
2. However, a major problem with this kind of application is …
3. Lack of X has existed as a health problem for many years.
4. Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks.
5. However, research has consistently shown that first year students have not attained an adequate understanding of … There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged …
6. Despite its lone clinical success, X has a number of problems in use.
7. Questions have been raised about the safety of prolonged use of …

描述方法：描述不同的方法

1. To date various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X:
2. In most recent studies, X is measured in four different ways.
3. Radiographic techniques are the main non-invasive method used to determine …
4. Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways.
5. Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on …
6. A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and disdrwbacks.
7. Date were gathered from multiple sources at various time points during the 2007-2008 academic year

解释为何采用一个特殊的方法

1. The semi-structured approach was chosen because …
2. Smith et al (1994) identify several advantages of the case study, …
3. It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to …
4. A case study approach was chosen to allow a …
5. The design of the questionnaires was based on …
6. The X method is one of the more practical ways of …
7. It was considered that quantitative measures would usefully supplement and extent the qualitative analysis.
8. Many of the distributions were not normal so non-parametric signed rank tests were run.
9. The X approach has a number of attractive features: …

讨论：背景信息

1. A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature.
2. Prior studies that have noted the importance of …
3. In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y.
4. As mentioned in the literature review, …
5. Very little was found in the literature in the question of …
6. This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in …
7. The third question in this research was …
8. It was hypothesised that participants with a history of …
9. the present study was designed to determine the effect of …

讨论：陈述结果

1. The results of this study show / indicate that…
2. This experiment did not detect any evidence for …
3. On the question of X, this study found that …
4. The current study found that…
5. The most interesting finding was that…
6. Another important finding was that …
7. The results of this study did not show that … /did not show any
8. significant increase in …
9. In the current study, comparing X with Y showed that the mean degree of …
10. In this study, Xs were found to cause …
11. X provided the largest set of significant clusters of …
12. It is interesting to note that in all seven cases of this study…

结论：概括内容

1. This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use of X…
2. This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to …
3. This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y.
4. This dissertation has investigated…

结论：重申研究目的

1. This study set out to determine…
2. The present study was designed to determine the effect of …
3. In this investigation, the aim was to assess…
4. The purpose of the current study was to determine…
5. This project was undertaken to design … and evaluate …
6. Returning to the hypothesis / question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that…

参考文献：相关文献概览

1. A considerable amount of literature has been published on X. These studies…
2. There is a large volume of published studies describing the role of …
3. The first serious discussions and analyses of X emerged during the 1970s with…
4. The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
5. What we know about X is largely based upon empirical studies that investigate how…
6. During the past 30 years much more information has become available on …
7. In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on …
8. A large and growing body of literature has investigated…

参考文献：以往研究或学术活动相关文献

1. Many historians has argued that … (e.g.. Jones, 1987; …)
2. Numerous studies has attempted to explain … (for example, Smith, 1996;…)
3. Recent evidence suggested that … (Smith, 1996；）
4. Recently, in vitro studies have shown that … can … (Patel et al., 1997; …)
5. Surveys such as that conducted by Smith (1998) have shown that …
6. Several attempts have been made to … (Smith, 1996; …)
7. Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on … (Smith, 1996)
8. Several biographies of Harris have been published. Smith presents an … account, whilst Jones …
9. Several studies investigating X have been carried out on …
10. Data from several sources have identified the increased morbidity and mortality associated with obesity.
11. Previous studies has reported … (…)
12. Previous research findings into X have been inconsistent and contradictory (…)
13. A number of studies have found that …(…)
14. Twenty cohort study analyses have examined the relationship between …
15. At least 152 case-control studies worldwide have examined the relationship between …
16. Other studies have considered the relationship …
17. The relationship between X and Y has been widely investigated ()…
18. The causes of X have been widely investigated (…).
19. The geology of X has been addressed in several smaliscale investigations and …
20. Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species (1).
21. X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids in murine-induced arthritis (11).
22. It has been suggested that levels of X are independent of the size of the Y (…) iT has conclusively been shown that X and Y increases Z (…)
23. It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to … (…)