翻译自《TOP 20 PRINCIPLES FROM PSYCHOLOGY FOR PreK–12 TEACHING AND LEARNING》American Psychological Association
原则一：
学生对于智力和能力的信念和观点，影响了他们的认知功能和学习
解释：
认为智力具有可塑性并且可以改变的学生，更有可能坚持在智力上的“成长型思维”（“incremental” or “growth” mind-set ）。
Students who believe intelligence is malleable and not fixed are more likely to adhere to an “incremental” or
“growth” mind-set about intelligence.
那些有着相反的观点，认为智力是固定不变的学生，更可能坚持在智力上的“实体理论”（ “entity” theory）。
Those who hold the opposite view, that intelligence is a fixed trait, tend to adhere to the “entity” theory of intelligence.
持有后一种观点的学生，专注于自己的表现好坏并相信他们需要持续的展示出并证明他们的智力，这使得他们比那些有着“成长型思维”的人更犹豫于做高挑战性的工作，面对消极的评价时更脆弱。
Students holding to the latter view focus on performance goals and believe they continually need to demonstrate and prove their intelligence, making them more hesitant to take on highly challenging tasks and more vulnerable to negative feedback than students holding an incremental view.
有着成长型思维的学生普遍更专注于学习的目标也更有意愿去做有挑战性的工作为了测试和提高（与自我防御式的证明相反）他们的智力和能力。
Students with an incremental mind-set generally focus on learning goals and are more willing to take on challenging tasks in an effort to test and expand (as opposed to defensively prove) their intelligence or ability.
因此，他们更容易从消极的反馈和失败中恢复。
Hence, they rebound more easily from negative feedback and failure.
相应地，认为智力和能力能够提升的学生，往往会在种种认知测试和面对要解决问题的情况时表现得更好。
Accordingly, students who believe that intelligence and ability can be enhanced tend to perform better on a variety of cognitive tasks and in problem-solving situations.
一种经过实证的培养成长型思维的方式，是依据教师对于学生表现的归因而构建起来的。
One evidence-based approach to fostering a growth mind-set is framed in terms of the attributions teachers assign to student performance.
当学生经历失败时，他们可能会问“为什么？”
When students experience failure, they are likely to ask “why?”
这个问题的答案是一种因果归因
The answer to that question is a causal attribution.
因果归因和成长型思维和实体思维有关，分别地，将有动力的学生从没有动力的学生中区分出来。
Causal attributions, which relate to growth and entity mind-sets, respectively, distinguish motivated from unmotivated students.
如果归因于是能力不行（“我失败了是因为我不够聪明”）则是认为智力是确定的。
Attributions that tend to blame one’s ability (“I failed because I’m just not smart enough”) are associated with the view that intelligence is fixed.
反过来讲，归因于不够努力（“我失败是由于我不够刻苦”）通常是认为智力是具有可塑性的。
In contrast, attributions that blame lack of effort (“I failed because I didn’t try hard enough”) generally reflect an incremental or growth view of intelligence.
当将失败归因于缺乏努力而不是能力差时，学生能够好的面对失败，因为前者是易变的（努力会随着时间波动）和可控的（学生能够更加努力如果他们想的话）。
Students are better able to cope when failure is attributed to a lack of effort rather than to low ability because the former is unstable (effort fluctuates over time) and controllable (students can generally try harder if they want to)
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