During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese believed that their civilization occupied a space between the earth and the heavens, so they called their empire Middle Kingdom or "zhongguo"（中國）. It was during this period in history that paintings from China were called "zhongguo hua"（中國畫）, and later abbreviated as "guohua"（國畫）.
Certain terminology appears repeatedly when people discuss Chinese paintings. If you really want to understand what is being said, these terms are crucial and will help you to appreciate Chinese paintings in a whole new way.
#1 Juan Ben ～ 絹本
Juan, is read in the fourth tone and means silk. Anything painted on silk of any kind, be it Juan, Ling or Sichou (絹、綾、絲綢) is generically referred to as juan ben. The weave of the horizontal and vertical threads is readily apparent. Traveling in the Xishan Mountains (溪山行旅圖) by Fan Kuan（範寬） is a good example of a juan ben painting.
Juan ben is expensive, and as a result paintings on paper or zhi ben (紙本) are far more common. Paper is by far the most common medium for Chinese paintings.
#2 She Se ～ 設色
The two characters most commonly paired with juanben or zhiben are definitely shese (設色). It means that a painting is colored rather than just black ink. If a painting is void of colors, it is a shui mo (水墨) painting, literally just ink and water. Shui mo paintings rely completely on the density of sparsity of pigmentation within the ink to convey a sense of darkness and light.
#3 Renwu Hua ～ 人物畫
Generic pictures of people or figures are referred to as renwu hua. In China, paintings of people predate illustrations of landscapes, flora and fauna and other types of creatures. Renwu hua can be further categorized into the smaller categories of Daoshi Hua (道釋畫)or paintings containing characters from Daoism and Buddhism; Shinv Hua (仕女畫) or illustrations of high society women; Xiaoxiang Hua (肖像畫) portraits; Fengsu Hua (風俗畫) paintings depicting traditional customs; and Lishi Gushi Hua (歷史故事畫) paintings of historic events. The earliest depiction of a person was in the Warring States period, and is titled: Person with Dragon and Phoenix (人物龍鳳圖).
Illustrations reached further maturity during the Weijin (魏晉) Period, a good example being the Ode to the Goddess of Luo River (洛神賦圖) by Gu Kaizhi (顧愷之).
The art of Renwu Hua reached new heights during the Tang dynasty. The Night Revels of Han Xizai (韓熙載夜宴圖) is one of the most acclaimed masterpieces of the Southern Tang dynasty.
Renwu Hua became less important during the Song dynasty, when Landscapes and pictures of nature took center stage. People were used like props in landscape paintings, to give them context. The rise of landscapes to center stage meant that the steady decline of Renwu Hua continued well into the Yuan dynasty. However the art was rejuvenated in the latter period of the Ming dynasty, new blood being infused via experimentation with styles and techniques from the west. Tired of Reading in the Boudoir (春閨倦讀圖) by the late Qing Imperial painter, Leng Mei (冷枚) is typical of the epoch.
Now we have a very basic understanding of how Renwu Hua developed through Chinas‘ various dynasties, let's get back to a couple of the categories mentioned earlier...
#4 Daoshi Hua ～ 道釋畫
A lot of people mistake the term simply to mean Daoist paintings, because Dao (道) refers to Daoism, but in so doing they have neglected the fact that Shi (釋) refers to Buddhism. Daoshi Hua portray not only people but Buddhist deities, Daoist immortals and demons. Artists who excelled at this medium are Gu Kaizhi (顧愷之), Zhan Ziqian (展子虔), Wu Daozi (吳道子), Jin Nong (金農) and Zhang Daqian(張大千). Ghost Amusements(鬼趣圖粉本) by Jin Nongs student, Luo Pin (罗聘) is widely recognized as being a seminal work in this particular genre.
#5 Shinü Hua ～ 仕女畫
A sub-category of Renwu Hua, dedicated to illustrating the lives of ladies of leisure, aristocrats of the finer sex. However, in recent times the term has broadened to mean any painting in which the subject is female, regardless of rank or social standing. Duchess Guo Riding in Spring (虢國夫人遊春圖) by Zhang Xuan (張萱) is a great example of a Shinü Hua.
#6 Shanshui Hua ～ 山水畫
Shanshui Hua are landscape paintings, dedicated to capturing the beauty of nature, it's rolling mountains, rivers, lakes, and plains. Landscape paintings appeared in China during the Weijin and Nanbei dynasties, but the focus of the art at that time was mainly figures, landscapes just formed a convenient backdrop.
Pure landscapes began appearing during the Sui and Tang dynasties. The earliest work recorded was A Spring Journey (遊春圖) by Zhan Ziqian (展子虔). Other examples of Shanshui Hua include: Jin Bi Shanshui by Li Sixun(李思訓); Shuimo Shanshui by Wang Wei (王維); and Pomo Shanshui by Wang Qia(王洽).
Landscape painting entered a golden age during the Song dynasty. A wave of innovation fueled by a new generation of painters and literati paved the way for the genres way to prominence in Chinese art. Artists of note include: Jing Hao (荊浩); Guan Tong (關仝); Li Cheng (李成); Dong Yuan (董源); Ju Ran (巨然); Fan Kuan (范寬); Xu Daoning (許道寧); Yan Wengui (燕文貴); Song Di (宋迪); Mi Fu (米芾); Mi Youren (米友仁) who were masters of ink wash landscapes. Wang Ximeng (王希孟), Zhao Baiju (趙伯駒), and Zhao Baisu(趙伯驌) produced masterful works in the Qing Lv Shanshui genre. The artists in the North and South competed to produce ever more stunning paintings, taking the art to new heights.
During the Yuan dynasty, the style of landscapes became more abstract, artists exploring the nuance of the ink on paper, experimenting with different styles of brushwork to convey emotions. This trend continued into the Ming and Qing dynasties. Now lets look at a few of the various sub-categories of Shanshui Hua.
#7 Qing Lü Shanshui ～ 青綠山水
These are landscapes painted using the pigment of ground down turquoise and azurite. That is why they are called Blue (青) and Green (綠) landscapes. It is not widely known that this type of landscape painting predates Shuimo (水墨) landscapes.
#8 Jin Bi Shanshui ～ 金碧山水
If in addition to green and blue mineral pigments, metal ores are ground down and used in a Landscape, then it is referred to as a Ji Bi Shanshui. Traveling in Spring (遊春圖) by Zhan Ziqian (展子虔) is a great example. A more recent example is The Cloud Sea of Huangshan (黃山雲海圖) by Zhang Daqian (張大千).
#9 Zhezhi ～ 折枝
Zhezhi refers to a type of painting in which flowers are painted without their attachment to larger trunks, but just the solitary branches (often flowers in an interior setting which have been arranged in a vase). There were Zhezhi paintings in the Song and Yuan dynasties, but they only gained widespread popularity during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Still lives of arranged flowers (小品花卉畫) became the subject of small albums and painted fans.
#10 Jiehua ～ 界畫
Jiehua is a term for paintings which contain architecture: Palaces, Temples, Pavillions etc. Jie refers to an architects pen Jiebi (界筆) and a ruler Zhichi (直尺), the names of the tools needed to paint buildings, which require perfect angles and straight lines. A great example of architectural painting is Hanyuan (漢苑圖) by Li Rongjin (李容瑾).
#11 Gongbi & Xieyi ～ 工筆 & 寫意
Gongbi or Imperial Style refers to a meticulous and incredibly detailed style of painting which starkly contrasts the Xieyi, or Freehand style, which places more emphasis on capturing the essence of a subject, leaving more to the imagination. Examples of Gongbi include the Auspicious Cranes (瑞鶴圖) by Emperor Huizong (宋徽宗) of the Northern Song, figures by Qiu Ying (仇英) and paintings of Birds and Flowers by Shen Quan (沈銓).
Xieyi style paintings are usually more spontaneous, not requiring an initial sketch, placing more emphasis on the vibe or feeling of a certain subject rather than the superficial details. Liang Kai (梁凯) and Fa Chang (法常) of the Southern Song, Ming dynasty painters Chen Chun (陈淳), Xu Wei (徐渭) and Zhu Da （朱耷）from the Qing dynasty are all masters of freehand brushwork. To understand the difference between Gongbi and Xieyi, it can help to look at the artwork of Qi Baishi: In his paintings of insects, sometimes the insects themselves are completed in the Gongbi style, but the surrounding plants and scenery are done in the Xieyi style.
#12 Mogu ～ 沒骨
Mogu style paintings are similar to Gongbi in that they are both colorful and incredibly detailed. The difference is that unlike Gongbi, Mogu paintings do not paint an initial sketch in ink to be filled in with color. The Gu in Mogu means bones, so these types of paintings are literally without bones, just the flesh and blood of colors.
#13 Fen Ben ～ 粉本
In ancient times, preparatory sketches used fen or powder, so a Fenben is a sketch made in preparation for a more elaborate work of art. As they say, a picture paints a thousand words, so here is an example of a Fenben:
#14 Xiao Pin ～ 小品
In Chinese, Xiao Pin usually means a skit or a bit (a short performance). However, in Chinese painting, the term takes on a new meaning: a work of art which captures the free and casual expression of the painter. The art is an embodiment of spontaneity and unshackled creativity. Xiao Pin tend to be small in dimensions and can often be quite profound.
The Xiao Pin painted during the Song dynasty are the most prized, and are often seen as a miniature history of the art of the epoch. Some paintings would originally have been ornaments decorating the screens and partitions within the palace, others painted on silk fans. Because of their artistic value, collectors removed such paintings from their original settings and conserved them in albums. One example of this would be Birds in the Rocky River Beneath the Plums (梅石溪裊圖) by Ma Yuan (馬遠), one of the four Masters of the Southern Song.
#15 Kuan Shi ～ 款識
Kuanshi is a term that pops up all the time when talking about Chinese art. It is a broad term that refers to all the writing and seals on the painting or work of calligraphy which aren't the main subject itself. This usually includes information about who painted (or wrote if calligraphy) the art, who it is a gift for (if it is indeed a gift), and information about the time and place the work was completed. If there is some story behind the work, the Kuanshi is where you will find it. Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty was famous for his signature written in cursive script, One Man Under the Sky (天下一人).
China has a saying that “poetry, calligraphy, painting and seals are all family”, the perfect combination for a work of art (詩書畫印不分家) and none should be absent. Hence the great importance artists place one their personal seals. The "finishing remarks" of the Kuanshi became more important after the Yuan dynasty and the trend continues to this day. Some go as far to say that a Kuanshi can make or break a work of art.
One example of a fine piece of art spoiled by a poor Kuanshi is a work by the legendary calligrapher Wang Xizhi (considered by many the greatest of all time). His masterpiece "Clear Skies after Snowfall" (快雪時晴貼) was ruined by Emperor Qianlong who peppered it with dozens of seals!
#16 Caoyi Chushui & Wudai Dangfeng ～ 曹衣出水吳帶當風
These two expressions refer to the style of brushwork used when painting the clothes of figures: Caoyi Chushui means that the clothes are tight around the contours of the body as if the subject has just gotten out of a pool of water, the brushwork is steely and overlapping. Wudai Dangfeng describes the belts or ribbons of a subjects clothing streaming in the wind, and describes flowing circular brushwork.
#17 Chun Chan Tu Si ～ 春蚕吐絲
This is a term that was initially used to describe the brushwork of Eastern Jin dynasty painter Gu Kaizhi (顧愷之). The brushwork was said to be like a silkworm making silk in spring: faint ghostly lines, delicate and slow. The complete opposite of this is Tie Xianmiao (鐵線描) or Iron Wire style brushwork. Interestingly enough both styles appear in the frescos of Yongle Palace. See if you can distinguish between the two.
#18 Mo Se Wu Fen ～ 墨色五分
The five different shades of ink is what this term refers to. Practitioners have different names for the five shades going from black to dark grey to light grey to white, but five is just an arbitrary number and there is no exact name for each shade. The terms used to describe the various shades of ink from dark to light are a follows: Jiao (焦) Nong (濃) Zhong (重) Dan (淡) Qing (清). Yuan dynasty painter Wang Meng was highly skilled in his use of Mo Se Wu Fen.
#19 San Yuan ～ 三遠
Literally "three far aways" this refers to different perspectives in a landscape painting. The three far aways are Gao Yuan (高遠), Shen Yuan (深遠) and Ping Yuan (平遠). Here is a break down of each of the three:
If the person observing the painting feels like they are stood at the foot of the mountian, then the peak is far away (this is called gaoyuan, literally the "tall is far away");
If the observer feels like they are looking down at scenery from the top of a mountain, then the foot of the mountain is far away (this is called shenyuan, literally the "deep is far away");
If the observer is looking from one peak to another distant peak, then they are looking neither up nor down (this is called pingyuan, literally the "level is far away").
#20 Liu Bai ～ 留白
This means leaving blank space, and it is a central concept when it comes to composition in Chinese paintings. leaving space for the mind to wander, leaving gaps for the imagination to work it's magic. Sometimes a blank space is ice and snow, sometimes it's the moon. The spaces left vacant help to balance the composition, and to accentuate the main subjects.
Well, that's it! 20 terms you really need to know if you want to be in a position to chat about Chinese painting with a fellow connoisseur. I hope this article is helpful and introduces more people to the beauty of Chinese art. Please feel free to share it with others who might find it beneficial.
