“COMMON SENSE IS NOT A GIFT, IT IS A PUNISHMENT. BECAUSE YOU HAVE TO DEAL WITH EVERYONE WHO DOESN’T HAVE IT.” (UNKNOWN)
“常识,不是礼物,而是一种惩罚。因为你必须和不具备它的人打交道。”(佚名)
COMMON SENSE IS LIKE DEODORANT THE PEOPLE WHO NEED IT MOST NEVER USE IT
常识,就像除臭剂,那些最需要它的人从不使用它。
1、常识的定义、分类及关系
常识(common sense),通常指关于日常事务的合理的实践判断,或者是几乎所有人共有(“共同”)的基本感知,理解和判断的能力。
常识的心理学定义是:有语言能力的使用者所共有的意义系统(the system of implications shared by the competent users of a language)。
第一种常识,是 good sense(良好的意识),可以被描述为“看到事物的本质,并遵循事物的规律来做事的诀窍(the knack for seeing things as they are, and doing things as they ought to be done.)”
第二种类型有时被描述为习俗(群体智慧),“表示不加反思的知识——既不依赖专业训练,也无需深思熟虑的知识(signifying unreflective knowledge not reliant on specialized training or deliberative thought.)”
这两种类型是交互作用的,因为有常识的人接触的是常识性的观念,而这些常识性观念,又是来自那些足以使人感知它们的常识性的生活经验。
另外,“常识”至少还有两个具体的哲学意义。
一是亚里士多德提出的动物灵魂的能力(ψῡχή,psūkhḗ),它使不同的个体感觉能够共同感知物质的特征,例如运动和大小,由于所有的物质都有不同的组合,这使得人和其他动物能够区分和识别不同的物质。这种常识不同于基本的感官知觉,也不同于人类的理性思维,但两者是相互作用的。
这个词的第二个特殊用法是受罗马人的影响,用来表示人类对他人和社会的自然敏感性。
就像日常意义一样,这两个意思都指的是一种基本的意识和判断能力,大多数人都希望自然地共享这种意识和判断能力,即使他们无法解释为什么。
所有这些“常识”的含义,包括日常的含义,都是在复杂的历史中相互联系,并在现代西方文明的重要政治和哲学辩论中演变而来,特别是在科学,政治和经济学方面。
2、与常识相反的
未经证实、毫无根据、空穴来风的;不合逻辑的,无效的;非理性的,荒谬的;无知的;
3、常识的现代定义
自启蒙时代以来,“常识”一词经常被用作修辞效果,有时候带有贬义,有时被当作权威被正面地诉诸。它可以被负面地等同于粗俗的偏见和迷信,或者反过来被看作正面的——作为良好品味的标准和作为科学和逻辑所需的最基本公理的来源,并与之形成对比。到了十八世纪初,这个古老的哲学术语首次获得了它的现代英语的含义——
"那些显而易见,不证自明的真理或传统智慧——人们不需要复杂的知识就能掌握,也不需要证据就能接受,因为它们与整个社会的基本(常识)智力和经验非常吻合。"("Those plain, self-evident truths or conventional wisdom that one needed no sophistication to grasp and no proof to accept precisely because they accorded so well with the basic (common sense) intellectual capacities and experiences of the whole social body")
4、常识的运用原则
然而,勒内·笛卡尔(René Descartes)对人们运用常识的看法并不乐观,这种观点来自他著名的一本书《Discourse on Method(谈谈方法)》。在开场白,笛卡尔就确立了有关常识最常见的现代意义及其争议。他认为,每个人都有相似和足够的常识(bon sens),却很少使用它们——
“常识,是人间分配得最均匀的东西。因为人人都认为自己具有非常充足的常识,就连那些在其他方面全都极难满足的人,也从来不会觉得自己的常识不够,要想再多得一点。在这一点上,并非人们弄错了,反倒正好证明,那种正确判断、辨别真假的能力,也就是我们称为常识或理性的那种东西,本来就是人人均等的;因此,这也将表明,我们的意见之所以分歧,并非由于有些人比其他人更加理性,而只是由于我们运用思想的途径不同,所考察的对象不是一回事。只有聪明才智是不够的,最重要的是把它们正确地运用好。杰出的人才既能成就伟大的美德,也能成就最大的罪恶;而那些行进得很慢的人,只要始终循着正道前进,就能够比那些离开正道飞奔的人前进得更快。”
(Good sense is of all things in the world the most equally distributed, for everybody thinks himself so abundantly provided with it, that even those most difficult to please in all other matters do not commonly desire more of it than they already possess. It is unlikely that this is an error on their part; it seems rather to be evidence in support of the view that the power of forming a good judgment and of distinguishing the true from the false, which is properly speaking what is called Good sense or Reason, is by nature equal in all men. Hence too it will show that the diversity of our opinions does not proceed from some men being more rational than others, but solely from the fact that our thoughts pass through diverse channels and the same objects are not considered by all. For to be possessed of good mental powers is not sufficient; the principal matter is to apply them well. The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as of the greatest virtues and those who proceed very slowly may, provided they always follow the straight road, really advance much faster than those who, though they run, forsake it.)
因此,笛卡尔提出,需要遵循他所描述的怀疑主义逻辑方法,而不应该过分依赖常识。这个著名的方法是——
“第一条是:凡是我没有明确地认识到的东西,我决不把它当成真的接受。也就是说,要小心避免轻率的判断和先人之见,除了清楚分明地呈现在我心里、使我根本无法怀疑的东西以外,不要多放一点别的东西到我的判断里。
第二条是:把我所审查的每一个难题按照可能和必要的程度分成若干部分,以便一一妥为解决。
第三条是:按次序进行我的思考,从最简单、最容易认识的对象开始,一点一点逐步上升,直到认识最复杂的对象;就连那些本来没有先后关系的东西,也给它们设定一个次序。
最后一条是:在任何情况之下,都要尽量全面地考察,尽量普遍地复查,做到确信毫无遗漏。”
(The first of these was to accept nothing as true which I did not clearly recognise to be so: that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitation and prejudice in judgments and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it.
The second was to divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible, and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible.
The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex, assuming an order, even if a fictitious one, among those which do not follow a natural sequence relatively to one another.
The last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that I should be certain of having omitted nothing.)
5、政治哲学里的常识
在随后的18世纪的启蒙运动中,常识作为现代思维的基础,被看待为正面的,例如托马斯潘恩的辩论小册子《常识》(1776年)被认为是18世纪最具影响力的政治小册子,影响了美国和法国的革命。
6、教育、教养的常识
人是目的,不是工具。(康德)
所有人类都有一个共同的发展过程。这是一个内在的,自然的过程,其主要的行为表现是好奇心。这与洛克的“白板”说不同,因为它是一个源于孩子本性的积极过程,它驱动孩子学习并适应周围环境。(卢梭)
所有的孩子都是经过精心设计的有机体,随时准备向周围的环境学习,以便成长为有道德的成年人,但由于腐败社会的不良影响,他们往往无法做到这一点。(卢梭)
“to prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself; it means so to train him that he will have the full and ready use of all his capacities" (My Pedagogic Creed, Dewey(杜威), 1897)“为未来的生活做好准备,意味着让他掌握自己;这意味着训练他,使他能够充分运用他所有的能力。”
“the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define instruction" (杜威, 1902, p. 16). “孩子和课程只是定义一个过程的两个限制。 正如两点定义一条直线一样,教学应该由孩子目前的立场以及所研究的事实和真理来定义。”
"if knowledge comes from the impressions made upon us by natural objects, it is impossible to procure knowledge without the use of objects which impress the mind" (杜威, 1916/2009, pp. 217–18).“如果知识来自于自然物体给我们留下的印象,那么如果不使用那些能给头脑留下深刻印象的物体,就不可能获得知识。”
"a teacher ought to have an unusual love and aptitude in some one subject: history, mathematics, literature, science, a fine art, or whatever" (杜威, APT, 2010, p. 35). “一名教师应该对某一门学科有不寻常的热爱和天赋:历史、数学、文学、科学、美术,或其他任何学科。”
孩子应该根据自己的兴趣指导自己的学习,并且应该允许他们探索自己的环境,通过自然的感官体验他们的学习。(基尔帕特里克,杜威的继任者)
能力是人类认知的支撑,也就是人类认知的解释——也就是说,能力,就是解释人类为何知道和为何能做到。
知识:一般而言指的是“知道了什么”;技能,指的是“能做到什么”;而能力是“为什么知道”和“为什么能做到”。
知识的载体是信息,而信息是唯一的;技能的载体是方法,方法不是唯一的,但是趋同同种的;能力的载体是思维模式,思维模式是千变万化的,但有一定的基本模式。
也即:知识←信息;技能←方法,能力←思维模式
(张勇,公众教育)
"When students develop their capacity to understand their own thinking processes, they are better equipped to employ the necessary cognitive skills to complete a task or achieve a goal. Students who have acquired metacognitive skills are better able to compensate for both low ability and insufficient information." (Carol Rolheiser p. 34)“当学生发展他们理解自己思维过程的能力时,他们就能更好地运用必要的认知技能来完成任务或达到目标。拥有元认知技能的学生能够更好地弥补能力较弱和信息不足的劣势。”
教育的目的之一,应该让学生成为知识的生产者,而不仅仅是知识的消费者。
这,应是教师和父母该认可的最基本的常识。
Reference
1、Merriam webster《韦氏词典》:https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/commonsense
2、common sense:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense
3、Philosophy of education
4、Discourse on Method,René Descartes