100. numb: [nʌm]  adj. 麻木的；失去知觉的 vt. 使麻木；使失去知觉

e.g. Henry Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, nineteenth century transcendentalists, believed that familiarity would numb your thinking and blind your perceptions.

99. a backbone of: 某事物的骨干

e.g. Today it is known that 80% to 90% of peptic ulcers are caused by H. pylori and antibiotics are a backbone of treatment.

e.g. Science is empiric: observations are the backbone of scientific reasoning and advancement.

98. serendipity:  [ˌserən'dɪpəti] n. 善于发掘新奇事物的天赋；易遇奇缘的运气

e.g. We sometimes consider anomalies to be “happy accidents” or serendipity.

97. anomaly:  [ə'nɒməli] n. 异常；反常；不规则

far too: 极其； 非常； 远远； 太

e.g. Observing anomalies is such a central step in the process of scientific insight that there are far too many examples to try to catalog them all.

96. veer off: 偏离航向

veer: [vɪə(r)] vt. 转向；改变 n. 转向

tunnel vision: 视野狭隘

wherein: adv. 在何处；在那里 conj. 在哪一点上；在什么地方

e.g. He discarded the tunnel vision wherein his contributions were all about understanding the staphylococcus bacteria and instead veered off to investigate fungus.

95. toss: [tɒs] n. 投掷；震荡 v. 投掷；摇荡；辗转

toss out: 丢弃； 扔掉

e.g. Other scientists had encountered fungus ruining their experiments in the same way—and had tossed them out.

94. chagrin: ['ʃæɡrɪn]  n. 懊恼 v. 使 ... 懊恼

e.g. To his chagrin, he found one dish contaminated by mold.

93. rampant:  ['ræmpənt] adj. 猖獗的；蔓延的；猛烈的；[纹]跃立的

on the part of: 就 ... 而言

e.g. Skepticism on the part of the scientific community was rampant.

92. perilous: ['perələs] adj. 危险的；冒险的

e.g. How perilous is it to see only the expected?

91. breed: v. 繁殖；养育；引起，产生；教养  n. 品种；血统

complacency: [kəm'pleɪsnsi] n. 自满；沾沾自喜

e.g. Familiarity may not always breed contempt, but it surely breeds complacency.

90. observant: [əb'zɜːvənt]  adj. 观察力敏锐的；（对法律、习俗、传统等）谨慎遵守的

89. cogent: ['kəʊdʒənt] adj. 有说服力的；令人信服的

e.g. Indeed, when Patricia Goldman-Rakic elegantly described the circuitry of the primate prefrontal cortex and its role in regulating behavior by representational memory nearly 20 years ago, so little was known about the orbitofrontal cortex that it warranted less than a page in her 44-page essay (Goldman-Rakic, 1987). Yet as we will argue, her much-ignored description of orbitofrontal function remains a cogent summary.

88. breach: [briːtʃ] n. 破坏；违背；决裂；裂口；（浪的）冲击 v. 违反；突破；在 ... 上打开缺口

e.g. Orbitofrontal cortex is activated during breaches of expectation in tasks of visual attention

87. sequelae: [sɪ'kwiːliː] n. 后遗症；结局  名词sequela: [sɪ'kwiːlə]的复数形式.

e.g. One approach is to compare the neuronal response to rewards and punishment. The rationale is that punishers should have many of the same behavioral and cognitive sequelae that rewards do.

86. level at: vt. 瞄准

e.g. Accordingly, many of the criticisms leveled at the JamesLange theory (Cannon 1927) might apply to the somatic marker hypothesis.

85. embody: [ɪm'bɒdi] vt. 使具体化；包含；代表，体现；使(精神)肉体化

e.g. These ideas embody many of the concepts from the James-Lange theory of emotions, which argued that changes in our autonomic state gave experiences an emotional quality.

84. gut feeling: 直觉

e.g. In effect, the patient loses the ability to make a decision by gut feeling.

83. Unbeknownst:  [ˌʌnbɪ'nəʊnst] adj. 未知的

e.g. Unbeknownst to the subject, two of the decks are risky: They are associated with large gains but also large and frequent losses.

82. swindle: ['swɪndl] v. 诈骗；骗取 n. 诈取；骗局

fraudster: [frɔːdstər]  n. <英>诈骗犯

e.g. In contrast, Elliott may have been unable to modify his initial trust and so was swindled by the fraudster.

81. devastate:  ['devəsteɪt] vt. 毁坏；使荒芜；使震惊

e.g. How can damage to this area leave so many of our cognitive abilities intact, yet devastate our ability to make the decisions that enable us to

navigate everyday life?

80. pertain: [pə'teɪn]  vi. 关于；从属；适合  pertaining: adj. 与 ... 有关系的； 附属的； 为 ... 固有的

e.g. In addition, OFC receives signals pertaining to errors in reward prediction, that may underlie learning of reward predictions.

79. division of labor: 分工

e.g. The authors explore the division of labor between the basal ganglia–dopamine (BG-DA) system and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in decision making.

78. coincide with: 符合； 与 ... 一致

e.g. In humans, concurrent ventral striatal and orbitofrontal activation were shown to coincide with reversal behavior in a probabilistic reversal paradigm.

77. verbalize: ['vɜːbəlaɪz] vi. 用语言表达；赘述 vt. 使变成动词；用词语描述

e.g. In addition, many of these patients could verbalize whether a deck of cards was good or bad but did not appropriately apply this information when performing the task, suggesting that they were unable to hold reward information online to bias an appropriate motor response.

76. override: v. 推翻；无视；凌驾；超驰控制(使自动控制暂时失效而改用手动控制)；[计算机]覆盖 n. 给代理人的佣金；超驰控制装置；推翻

e.g. On the basis of much of this evidence, it has been suggested that the medial OFC monitors the association between stimuli and correct or rewarded responses, whereas the lateral OFC overrides choices based on previous but no longer applicable reward values.

75. unequivocally: adj. 不含糊的；明白的；确实的

E.g. Indeed,because in this task there is no ambiguity regarding therepresentations required to mediate normal performance,the deficits described here point unequivocally towards aloss of outcome expectancies in cocaine-treated rats.

74. a myriad of：无数的

E.g. The disruption of such a signal would be expected to create a myriad of difficulties, in the ability both to make adaptive decisions and to learn from negative consequences of decisions.

73. fittingly: adv. 适切地；适合地

e.g. For these reasons E. C. Tolman conceived associations in terms of stimuli, and applied the term “expectancy theory” to his concept of learning. This term fittingly describes the experience: we expect to see the drugstore if we turn to the right, and we expect to see a certain man if we hear his name called.

72. epitomize：[ɪ'pɪtəmaɪz]  v. 摘要； 概括； 成为 ... 的缩影； 作为典范

e.g. Damage to orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) has long been associated with decision-making deficits. Such deficits are epitomized by impairments in reversal learning.

71. as such: 照这样； 就这点而论

e.g. Stimuli that provide information on the likely payoff associated with selecting one as opposed to another course of action reduces uncertainty and, as such, can and should bias action selection.

70. negate:  [nɪ'ɡeɪt] vt. 否定；否认；使无效

e.g. Central nucleus is now recognized as an important associative learning node in its own right, and thus lesions that include this area may negate the improvement caused by ABL damage.

69. in a variety of ways: 在很多方面

e.g. This study differs in a variety of ways from our report, including obvious differences in species, possible anatomical specificity of lesions in both regions, and task design.

68. mitigate:  ['mɪtɪɡeɪt] vt. 减轻；缓和

e.g. Under this scenario, damage to the downstream regions should mitigate the reversal impairment caused by OFC lesions, as we have reported here.

67. Under such a scenario:  [sə'nɑːriəʊ] scenario 在这种情境下；

Under these circumstances: 在那些情况下；

e.g. Under such a scenario, OFC would be critical to cognitive flexibility because it encodes the new stimulus-outcome associations after reversal more quickly than other brain regions and then propagates this information to downstream brain areas to drive the behavioral reversal directly.

66. deemphasize : vt. 降低 ... 的重要性； 削弱； 使 ... 不重要

e.g. This setting differs from the reversal task used in the current report in that outcome information is deemphasized, since there is only one cue and one outcome during initial learning and only the absence of that outcome, rather than its replacement by an aversive outcome, during extinction.

65. bear on: 依靠； 压在 ... 之上； 与 ... 有关； 对 ... 有影响

e.g. Although this may be a species difference, it may also be that circumstance and familiarity are critical in determining how tightly encoding in OFC integrates disparate information bearing on value.

64. in large part: adv. 部分地

e.g. This is in large part due to the finding that task-related activity in primate OFC is generally not dependent on the direction of the motor response, suggesting that OFC encodes the value of rewards independent of the actions required to obtain them.

63. setting： n. 背景；环境；镶嵌；安装；放置；（日月的）沉落；[音]乐曲

e.g. However, after a period of training in which both rewards were experienced at equal delays, the OFC-lesioned rats were able to perform normally when they were returned to a setting in which the small reward was no longer delayed.

62. pit against：vt. 使 ... 相斗； 使竞争

e.g. In this experiment, a large, delayed reward was initially pitted against a small, immediate reward. OFC-lesioned rats were more impulsive than controls.

61. over-hasty: 过于-adj. 匆匆的；轻率的；急忙的

e.g. Their risky decision making can be very slow, contradicting the impulsive trait of making over-hasty judgements

60. inextricably:  [ˌɪnɪk'strɪkəbli]  adv. 分不开地；无法摆脱地

e.g. While deciding how much effort to expend may be related to considerations of the opportunity costs of not responding and energy expenditure, deciding how long to wait for an outcome may be inextricably linked to associative learning mechanisms.

59. impinge on: [ɪm'pɪndʒ]  vi. 撞击；侵犯；对...有影响 vt. 撞击，打击

e.g. Given the separation of their anatomical substrates, it is likely that delay and effort costs will impinge on decision making in different ways.

58.  take a turn: vt. 转变(转机；变更)

e.g. The personality of railroad foreman Phineas Gage took a turn for the worse when an accidental explosion shot a tamping iron through the frontal lobe of his brain.

57. ameliorated：  [ə'miːliəreɪt] vt. 使改善；使变好 vi. 改善；变好

ameliorative:  [ə'miːljərətɪv]: adj. 改善的

e.g. Both deficits were ameliorated after the experience of choosing to overcome the cost, suggesting that the decision-making function of the areas can be understood in the context of their involvement in fundamental aspects of associative learning.

56. flurry:  ['flʌri] n. 一阵疾风；阵雪；忙乱 v. 发慌；焦躁

e.g. A recent flurry of neuroimaging results in humans has provided a step forward in understanding reward processing in humans.

55. incommensurable: [ˌɪnkə'menʃərəbl] adj. 不能衡量的；不能比较的；〈数〉不可通约的 n. 不能测量的东西

e.g. A currency is an abstract way to represent the value of a good or service. For our purposes in this paper, it possesses an important property: it provides a common scale to value fundamentally incommensurable stimuli and behavioral acts.

54. tied up： 扎绑； 占用； 停滞

e.g. Believing a predictor means that processing time is tied up and behavioral resources committed as actions are prepared.

53. captivate: ['kæptɪveɪt] vt. 迷住；迷惑

e.g. One behavioral construct of valuation that has captivated economists is the problem of intertemporal choice.

52. forge: vt. 锻造；伪造；建立 vi. 伪造；做铁匠

e.g Altogether, we strongly suspect that a new generation of electrophysiological results in animals and neuroimaging results in humans may well forge a connection between neural responses and direct measures of economic behaviors.

51. carry out: vt. 施行；实现

e.g. Creatures that take an excessive amount of time or effort acquiring food, mates, and safety will be less successful than creatures that carry out these functions quickly and efficiently.

50. and so forth: 等等

e.g. Without internal currencies in the nervous system, a creature would be unable to assess the relative value of different events like drinking water, smelling food,scanning for predators, sitting quietly in the sun, and so forth.

49. appraise: vt. 评价；估价；鉴定

48. opt for: 选择

e.g. Moreover, recent experiments have shown that patients with OPFC lesions often make disadvantageous choices in gambling tasks, opting for large low-probability rewards in preference to smaller more reliable rewards

47. on a par with： 同等； 同位； 同价

e.g. This was on a par with the 63% efficacy reported for the University of Oxford–AstraZeneca’s viral-vector vaccine at the time of its WHO listing, but lower than the 90% and higher efficacies of the mRNA vaccines developed by Pfizer–BioNTech and Moderna.

46. inflict: vt. 使遭受；施以；加害；折磨

e.g. it must be emphasised that while the foregoing discussion has focussed on the OPFC, the location of the lesions inflicted in these experiments invites some caution in attributing the observed effects exclusively to damage within this area.

45. efficacious: [ˌefɪ'keɪʃəs]  adj. 有效的；灵验的

e.g. this would have had the effect of reducing the relative efficacy of the larger reinforcer, with the result that a mild devaluation of the larger reinforcer, brought about by a brief delay or a small degree of uncertainty, could have rendered it less efficacious than the smaller reinforcer.

44. epitomise: [ɪ'pɪtəmɪs] vt. 对 ... 作摘要； 集中体现； 成为 ... 的化身； 成为 ... 的缩影； 概括

amenable: [ə'miːnəbl]  adj. 顺从的；通情达理的；经得起检验的；对...负有义务的

e.g. On the basis of current models of inter-temporal choice, for example the multiplicative hyperbolic model epitomised by equation 1, these results are amenable to two explanations.

43. spurn: v. 轻蔑地拒绝；摒弃 n. 摒弃

in preference to: 优先于

e.g. One such component is the tendency to choose small short-term gains in preference to larger delayed gains or larger delayed penalties in preference to smaller immediate penalties ( impulsive choice), or to spurn small high-probability rewards in favour of larger but less probable rewards (risky choice).

42. fractionate: vt. 分开；分馏

e.g. Recent theoretical accounts have attempted to fractionate the concept of impulsiveness into several components

41. come under scrutiny: 接受监视，细看，周密的调查

of late: 近来； 最近

insofar as: 在 ... 的范围内； 到 ... 的程度

e.g. It has also been proposed that OFC biases behavior by allowing cues to activate representations of the outcome’s emotional valence. Although this account has come under scrutiny of late, our proposal would contradict it insofar as we do not believe OFC is critical

for associative learning.

40. be aware of: 意识到，察觉到，知道

e.g. The affective ratings of controls varied with the amount of reward they received, but their rating also changed when they were made aware of the reward or punishment associated with the stimulus they did not select.

39. bear out: To prove to be right or justified; confirm:

e.g. Rat orbitofrontal cortex is anatomically similar to the orbital prefrontal region in primates, and this similarity is borne out by behavioral and neurophysiological findings.

36. explicable/explainable: adj. 可解释的；可说明的

e.g. For example, locomotion in runways and mazes has been extensively used in the study of motivation and is often characterized as instrumental, although it is readily explicable in terms of the Pavlovian control of approach to stimuli associated with the outcome.

35. by and large: 总的来说； 大体上； 基本上

e.g. Over the intervening years attempts have been made to resurrect expectancy theory, although, by and large, contemporary students of animal conditioning (e.g., Mackintosh, 1975; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972) have been content to leave the nature of the knowledge underlying conditioning unspecified within the term associative strength.

34. heyday: n. 全盛期

int. <古>嘿（喜悦、惊奇时所发声音）

e.g. In one form or another this position was vigorously defended throughout the heyday of stimulus-response theory by Tolman and his collaborators, but by the 1950s the parties to the dispute appeared to despair of a resolution with the result that the question of “what is learned” came to have less and less prominence in discussions of conditioning.

33. perverse: adj. 任性的；固执错误的；故意作对的；有悖常理的

e.g. The most perverse feature of stimulus-response theories has always been their claim that knowledge about the consequences of actions and about the predictive implications of stimuli plays no role in the genesis of conditioned behavior.

32. qualm: n. 疑虑；晕眩；紧张不安

e.g. Unless such knowledge plays a central psychological role in performance, we should have qualms about claiming that the action in question is "directed" at the goal

31. bring to bear: vt. 施加

in vain: 徒然； 白费； 无效

e.g. Moreover, there is an extensive literature on the psychological resources brought to bear in solving complex problems and decisions in the service of cognitive goals. But even so, we should search in vain among the literature for a consensus about the psychological processes by which primary motivational states, such as hunger and thirst, regulate simple goal-directed acts.

30. tap into： 深入了解；（为了利益）充分利用或挖掘（资源）

tap: n. 龙头；塞子；窃听 n. 轻拍；轻敲；鞋掌 v. 轻拍；轻击；补鞋掌；选择 v. 开发；利用；索要；装龙头；窃听

e.g. Rats made causal inferences in a basic task that taps into core features of causal reasoning without requiring complex physical knowledge.

29. turn from: vt. 对 ... 感到厌恶

e.g. This view of instrumental learning so dominated thinking during the 1940sand 1950s that discussion turned from examination of the nature of the underlying associative structure to exploration of the properties that an event needed in order to be a reinforcer.

28. lie outside the scope of:

e.g. In conclusion, there is compelling evidence from this and other devaluation studies that instrumental action can be controlled by knowledge of the response reward contingency in a way that lies outside the scope of even elaborated S–R theories.

27. valiant: adj. 勇敢的；英勇的 n. 勇士；勇敢的人

e.g. S–R theorists have made valiant efforts to explain reinforcer devaluation effects without appealing to knowledge of the response-reward association.

26. As a consequence: 结果

e.g. As a consequence, any effect of the prefeeding could not have been mediated by altering the direct impact of the rewards themselves but must reflect knowledge of the two rewards acquired during the initial instrumental training

25. in other words: 换句话说； 也就是说

e.g. The second limitation arises from the failure of an S–R process to encode the consequences of a response or, in other words, to represent the causal relationship between an action and a reward.

24. At variance with: adj. 同 ... 不和(和 ... 有矛盾)

e.g. At variance with this prediction, Hammond (1980) found that enhancing the probability of a reward in the absence of the response depresses instrumental performance.

23. prone: adj. 易于 ... 的；有 ... 倾向的；俯卧的

e.g. As a result, it is prone to develop superstitious responding under conditions in which a reinforcer reliably follows a response even if there is no causal association between the response and reward.

22. in the service of: 为......服务；达到为......服务的目的；

e.g. Whereas Pavlovian conditioning enables an animal to anticipate motivationally significant events, it is instrumental conditioning that allows control over these events in the service of its needs and desires.

21. Much the same: adv. 几乎相同(大致一样)

e.g. Much the same is true of the neurobiological analysis of conditioning.

20. at the mercy of: 在…支配下；任由…摆布

e.g. Although the functional importance of Pavlovian responses is well established (Hollis et al., 1997), their adaptive form is determined by evolutionary processes rather than individual learning, with the consequence that a purely Pavlovian animal is at the mercy of the stability of the causal consequences of its behaviour.

19. prospectively: adv. 有希望地；预期地

e.g. Evidence in that study indicated that this encoding was prospectively related to the incentive value of the impending event.

18. then-known : 当时所知的

e.g. The latest review of conditioned inhibition by Savastano et al. (1999) presented and explained the putative mechanism underlying most of the then-known procedures for inducing conditioned inhibition.

17. utter: adj. 完全的；全然的；绝对的  v. 说；发出；表达

e.g. Even so, those models do not account for the multifaceted circuitry (e.g., including the LHb-VTA-mPFC pathway) of this structure which, we argue, is highly relevant for an utter understanding of its role in inhibitory learning.

16. scant: adj. 不充分的；不足的 v. 减缩；限制；忽略

e.g. Although research on LHb-mPFC interaction is still scant, we outline some ideas on how these regions may jointly contribute to learning from negative reward prediction errors.

15. certify: vt. 证明；保证；证实；颁发证书

Likewise: adv. 同样地；此外；（表示感觉相同）我也是

e.g. Likewise, other behavioral manifestations, besides negative summation and retardation of acquisition tests, could be used to certify conditioned inhibition

14. bounce vi. 弹起；重新恢复；退票 vt. 使弹起；解雇；驱逐 n. 弹跳；弹力；活力

e.g.  Note that the minimal response to the target stimulus observed after extinction procedures is quite labile and responding is often susceptible to bounce back after a slight contextual change (Bouton et al., 2021), this is not accounted by the Rescorla–Wagner model.

13. imbue: v. 灌输；使感染；使充满

e.g. On one hand, reward-omission experiences imbue preceding cues with properties that are functionally equivalent to those cues associated with primary aversive stimuli.

12. restitution： n. 归还；赔偿；恢复原状

e.g. Once a cue or action has acquired some associative strength, the repeated omission of reward after its presentation allows for the restitution of behavior to the initial non-responsive state.

11. codify v. 把…编成法典；整理；编纂

e.g. Brindley and Teller developed the concept of a ‘linking hypothesis’ as way to formalize what one can and cannot conclude about how perception works based on properties of sensory neurons. This idea, together with the insights of Barlow, Marr, and others, began to codify the brain–mind relationship in a way that emphasized testable predictions and an understanding of the computations the system must perform.

10. tongue-in-cheek: adj. 不认真的；不当真的；半开玩笑的 adv. 无诚意地

e.g. Of course this is somewhat tongue-in-cheek, as cognition is not vision (although it seems unlikely that evolution would produce radically different neural mechanisms for the two functions).

9. in between: 在 ... 之间

squarely: adv. 成方形地；成直角地；直接地；坚定地；公平地

e.g. The first part of this review describes some principles of task design that originate in the quantitative study of perception or movement, yet should prove useful for probing processes that lie squarely in between.

8. attainable: adj. 可达到的；可获得的

e.g. The degree of insight attainable in an experiment is therefore limited not by how many neurons we record, but by the quality of

the mapping we can create between internal states and behavioral reports.

7. at the expense of

e.g. However, the pursuit of advanced technology and ‘big data’ should not come at the expense of well-defined hypotheses and rigorous

behavioral control.

6. at a remarkable pace

e.g. It is an exciting time for systems and cognitive neuroscience. Methods for collecting and analyzing data are improving at a remarkable pace, and questions once limited to human and nonhuman primate studies are now being addressed in smaller animal models for which largescale data collection and powerful circuit dissection techniques are more tractable.

5. distillation： n. 蒸馏

thereof：adv. 由此；其；关于它的

e.g. For although we wish to understand the inner workings of the mind, we only have access to a coarse distillation thereof, namely behavior.

4. einstellung effect: 定势效应 [aɪnste'lʌŋ]

e.g. The Einstellung effect occurs where preexisting knowledge impedes one’s ability to reach an optimal solution. We become unable to consider other solutions when we think we already have a one, even though it may not be accurate or optimal. It leaves us cognitively incapable of differentiating previous experience with the current problem. So we may solve a problem but we don’t actually innovate.

3. effect: v. 使产生；引起 n. 效应；结果；影响；印象；效果；要旨

e.g. These similarities suggest that unilateral optogenetic IL activation was sufficient for effecting a behavioral change, as has been shown by others.

2. trailblazer n. 开拓者；先驱  ['treɪlbleɪzər]

e.g.Widely considered to be a trailblazer and a worldwide leader in the field of visual cognition, she was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences in 2015 and into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2019.

1. discrepant: adj. 相差的；有差异的；矛盾的

e.g. These discrepant findings in studies using instrumental conditioning procedures, together with a lack of research on extinction mechanisms in appetitive Pavlovian learning paradigms, make the role of the IL in the extinction of responding to appetitive Pavlovian cues unclear.