1 Grape Species, Varieties and Rootstocks-A2

2016-12-04 WSET 3 葡萄酒的门徒

1  葡萄种类品种，以及砧木

Although thousands of different grape varieties exist, most have only local relevance. A few, though, have a global reputation, either because they are widely grown or because they are responsible for giving one or more of the world’s great wines. The terms ‘variety’, ‘clone’, ‘crossing’ and ‘hybrid’ will be defined. The different roles that varieties, clones, crossings and hybrids play will be explained.

尽管葡萄品种有数千种，但大多数品种只限于当地生长，少数品种，因为它们的种植范围很广或因为它们被用来酿造一些知名的酒，所以这些品种能够享誉全球。以下将会定义“品种”、“品系“、“种内杂交”、“种间杂交“这些术语，以及解释它们所起到的不同的作用。

VINE SPECIES USED IN VITICULTURE

There are more than 60 different species of grapevine found throughout the world but only a handful of these species are used in modern viticulture. The most important ones are:

葡萄栽培中使用的种类

全球大约有60多个不同的葡萄种类，但现代葡萄种植使用的种类却屈指可数。最为重要的有:

Vitis vinifera– This is the main Eurasian species. It produces nearly all the grapes used in winemaking and has been used to make wine for several thousand years. There are thought to be between 5000 and 10 000 varieties of V.vinifera.

Vitis vinifera 欧亚葡萄 — 这是欧亚大陆上的主要种类。几千年来，几乎所有用于酿酒的葡萄品种都属于这一种类，据估计，欧亚葡萄（Vitis vinifera）大约包含5000至10000个品种。

Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, Vitis berlandieri– These three species are native to North America and are rarely used to produce grape for winemaking. However, unlike V.vniifera, they are resistant to the vine pestPhylloxera, which attacks the vine’s roots and so they are used to provide root systems onto whichV.vinifera vines are grafted (see ‘Hybrids as Rootstocks’ on Page 5).

Vitis riparia河岸葡萄、 Vitis rupestris沙地葡萄、 Vitis berlandieri冬葡萄 — 这三个种类是北美的土生种，它们出产的葡萄几乎不用于酿酒。但是，与欧亚葡萄不同，它们对那些蚕食葡萄根部的葡萄根瘤蚜有抗性，因此多用作砧木为嫁接的欧亚葡萄提供根系（参见第5页的杂交砧木）。

THE ANATOMY OF THE VINE

All vines have similar structures. The following terms will be used throughout this book

葡萄树的构成

所有的葡萄藤都有相似的结构。以下这些术语将会贯穿在本书中用到。

Shoots – Shoots are the new growth a vine produces each year. Along the length of each shoot are a number of regularly spaced bumps called nodes. At each node there will either be a leaf and a flower or a leaf and a tendril. Buds form where leaf stems join the shoot.

新枝 — 葡萄树上每年长出的新枝梢。沿着每根新长出的枝梢会有许多间隔规律的突起，这就是节点。每个节点都会有一片叶子和花絮，或者一片叶子和一根卷须。芽从叶柄与新枝的结合处长出。

Leaves – These are the plant’s engine. They are principally responsible for photosynthesis, which is the process by which plants use chlorophyll and energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into the sugar glucose and oxygen. The glucose has three main uses:

叶子 —  这是植物的引擎，它们主要负责光合作用，这个过程植物通过叶绿素、阳光的能量将水和二氧化碳转化成葡萄糖以及氧气。葡萄糖有三个主要的作用: 

The vine can combine the small glucose molecules into large carbohydrates, which are the building blocks for all its other structures.

The energy stored in the glucose can be released when the plant needs it for other living processes.

Glucose is concentrated in the fruit, to make them attractive to animals, which are needed to propagate the seeds.

葡萄树可以将小分子的葡萄糖分子转化成大分子的碳水化合物，从而作为组成其他结构的基石。

储存在葡萄糖中的能量可以在植物于其他生长过程中需要的时候释放出来。

葡萄糖在果实中的浓缩使得他们对动物有吸引力，这也是葡萄繁殖种子所必需的。 

Tendrils – Unlike trees, vines are not able to support themselves so they need to grip a supporting structure in order to stay upright. Tendrils are the structures vines use to do this. Once a tendril senses that it has touched a structure such as a trellis wire, it will wind itself tightly around the wire in order to keep the shoot upright.

Tendrils

卷须 —   与木本不同，葡萄树自身没有支撑能力，所以它们需要抓住支撑结构才能保持向上直立状态。卷须就是用来实施攀附功能的。一旦卷须感知到它触碰到了类似棚架钢丝这样的组织，它就会紧紧地缠绕在钢丝上，从而保持新枝的直立状态。

Flowers and Berries – Flowers are the vine’s reproductive organs. A vine’s flowers are hermaphrodite, which means they have both male and female parts. The flowers are grouped in bunches called inflorescences. Each flower that is successfully pollinated will become a berry and so the inflorescence will become the bunch of grapes that will be harvested at the end of the growing season. The grape has evolved as a wind-pollinated, animal-dispersed species, so although the fruits are sweet and brightly coloured, the flowers are very small.

inflorescences

花朵和果实 —  花朵是葡萄的生殖器官，葡萄花是雌雄同体的，既包括雄性部分也包括雌性部分，这些花成串聚在一起被称为花序，每一朵经过成功授粉的花都会发育成一个果实，因此花序会在生长系的后期变成一串葡萄而被收获。葡萄已进化成为风媒传粉、动物传粉的物种，虽然葡萄果实甜美且颜色鲜艳，但是他的每一朵花都非常小。

Buds – These form in the join between the leaf and the shoot and can be described as embryonic shoots. Once formed, they mature inside their casing during the growing season so that by the end of the year each bud contains in miniature all the structures that will become the shoot, leaves, flowers and tendrils the following year.

芽 —  这些在叶与新枝结合部形成的组织也可以用胚性新枝来描述。一旦形成，它们在当年的生长季内会在牙管内发育成熟，形成完整的各类微型组织，之后在下一个生长季长成新枝、叶片、花朵和卷须。

One Year Old Wood – Shoots turn woody during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, they become one year old wood, and the buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots. Managing the one year old wood is vital for the vine-grower because vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds that developed the previous year. Every winter the vine is pruned and the one year old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long, with eight to fifteen buds whereas a spur is short and has only two to three buds.

a hand cane pruned vine, 20 year old shiraz on the Schoolhouse Block at Glenguin.

一年生木 —  当年新枝会在冬季长成木质状的枝条。在来年的春季，它们就是一年生木了，去年这些枝条之上形成的芽就会萌发，进而形成新枝。对一年生木的管理对于葡萄种植者而言极其重要，因为通常只有去年长出的芽才会在今年长成新枝进而结果。每个冬季都需要对葡萄进行修剪，根据枝条上有芽的数量，这些一年生木可以被分类成长枝（学术上称作:结果母枝）和短枝，长枝顾名思义比较长，有8到15个芽，短枝只有2到3个芽。

A spur pruned, cordon trained vine in Australia.

A cane pruned vine

Permanent Wood – This is wood which is more than one year old. In the vineyard the amount of permanent wood is restricted by pruning. The permanent wood is made up of the trunk and the arms of the vine, which are sometimes referred to as cordons. Not every vine has the same configuration of permanent wood. This will be discussed further in the section on training in chapter 3. The vine stores some of its carbohydrate reserves in its permanent wood during the winter. These reserves are used to fuel initial shoot growth until leaves can start supplying carbohydrates, and are especially important in areas with a cool, slow start to the growing season.

多年生木  —   指那些一年以上的木质枝条。葡萄园中多年生木的数量是需要通过修剪而严格控制的。多年生木组成了葡萄的主干和臂干部分，有时被称为主蔓。并不是每一颗葡萄都有相同结构的多年生木。这些我们会在第三章整形（Training）中进一步详细讨论。冬季一些碳水化合物会贮存在葡萄的多年生枝条中。在叶子长出并能够提供碳水化合物之前，这些贮存的养分会为最初新枝的生长提供能量，这一点在凉爽且生长系季漫长的地区尤为重要。

The Roots – Their function is to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, anchor the vine and store carbohydrates to allow the vine to survive the winter. In modern vineyards most V.viniferaare grafted onto root systems from other species because they cannot resist Phylloxera.

根 —  它们的功能是从土壤中吸取水和养分，固定葡萄藤以及为葡萄顺利渡过冬天贮藏碳水化合物。在现代葡萄园中，几乎所有的欧亚葡萄都会因为不抗根瘤蚜而被嫁接在其他葡萄种类的根系上。

ORIGIN OF GRAPE VARIETIES

A population of grapevines belong to the same grape variety if the ancestry of every plant follows a line of cuttings taken from cuttings back to the same, single, original ‘parent’ plant. Two grapevines are of different grape varieties if, when their ancestry is traced back through cuttings to the original plant grown from seed, two different seedlings the found.

葡萄品种的起源

如果葡萄树属于同一品种，不管它们通过多次扦插进行无性繁殖，都能追溯到同一亲本。如果是不同品种，那么它们的亲本是不一样的。

There are currently between 5000 and 10 000 varieties of V.vinifera. For the wine consumer, the principal difference between them is that their grapes vary in colour, composition and flavor. Grape varieties differ also in how well they can ripen a crop in different environments; their tolerance to pests or diseases; the yields they can produce and many other factors that can be of great importance to the grape grower. The terms ‘vine variety’ and ‘grape variety’ are interchangeable, and the terms ‘varietal’ and ‘cultivar’ are also widely used as synonyms for ‘variety’.

欧亚葡萄种类大约包含了5000到10000个葡萄品种。对于葡萄酒消费者而言，主要的区别就是葡萄果实在颜色、组成以及风味上都有不同。不同葡萄品种的差异在其他方面也会表现出来，如在不同环境下的成熟情况不同；对病虫害的抗性不同；产量不同，以及在其他对葡萄种植者而言很重要的方面不同。英语术语中，“vine variety” 和 “grape variety” 是可互换的，都指的是“葡萄品种”，而“varietal” 和 “cultivar” 也时常作为 “varietu(品种)” 的同义词来使用。

Variations within species can come from two distinct routes: sexual reproduction and mutations. In sexual reproduction a flower is pollinated and grows into a grape with seeds. If the seed is planted, it will become a new variety. A seed taken from, for example, a Riesling grape will not grow into a Riesling vine, even if it is pollinated by another Riesling vine: every seedling is in theory a new variety. The new variety will inherit some characteristics from the parent vines, but these do not necessarily express themselves in any recognisable way in the wine made from the grapes. For example, Morio Muskat makes overwhelmingly perfumed wines, but its parents (Sylvaner and Pinot Blanc) make fairly neutral wines.

种间差异源于两个不同的途径:有性生殖和变异。有性生殖过程中，经过授粉的花会发育成带有种子的果实。种子被栽种后，就会长成一个新品种，既使一棵雷司令的花通过与另一棵雷司令授粉后形成的种子，也不会再长成雷司令了，每一株秧苗从理论上讲都是一个新品种。新品种会从父母本上继承一些性状，但是用它酿成的酒中并不一定会表现出可以识别的亲本特点。例如，Morio Muskat 马里奥麝香酿成的酒会有浓郁的芳香，但是它的亲本 Sylvaner 西万尼和 Pinot Blanc 白比诺酿成的酒的香气则较为寡淡。

Mutations happen during the complex process of copying genetic material that happens when a new bud is formed. If an error happens in the copying process then the new shoot can display characteristics that differ from the rest of the plant. A cutting can be taken from the mutated new shoot and grown into a plant. The differences between the mutation and the original plant are usually small, and both plants are considered to be the same grape variety. In a few cases, the variation is significant enough to justify treating the new plant as an entirely new grape variety. For example, Pinot Blanc and Pinot Gris mutated from Pinot Noir.

新芽形成时会经历复杂的基因复制过程，变异主要是发生在这个过程中。如果复制过程出现任何一个错误，新枝就会表现出与其他部分不同的性状。扦插枝条可以从发生变异的新枝获得，之后再生长成新的植株。变异长成的新株与原始植株的差别通常比较细微，此时这两棵植株都可以归为同一个品种。在少数情况下，这种差别会足够显著到可以将变异植株划分成一个新的品种。例如，Pinot Blanc 白比诺和 Pinot Gris 灰比诺都是由 Pinot Noir 黑比诺变异而来。

GLONES AND CLONAL SELECTION

In order to preserve the unique characteristics of each variety, identical copies can be propagated either from cuttings or by layering. Both these methods rely on a plant’s ability to regenerate itself from the smallest of pieces. A cuttingis a section taken from a healthy shoot before it has become woody. This is planted, takes root and grows into a new plant. Layering works by bending a cane down and burying a section of it in the ground. The buried section will take root and once it has established itself the cane linking it to the original plant is cut. These methods of propagation have been used for centuries and have made it possible for certain grape varieties with preferred characteristics to dominate certain vineyard areas.

品系与品系选择

为了保存每一个品种独特的性状，可以通过扦插或压条的方法繁殖出相同的植株。这两种方法都需要植物有从最小的植物组织进行自我生长的能力。扦插枝条是从健康的未木质化的新枝上获得的一段。种植后，它会生根进而生长成新的植株。压条是通过压弯一条长枝并将其中的一部分埋入土下。被埋的一部分就会长出根，一旦新株可以独立存活，连接到原来植株上的枝条就可以被剪断了。这些繁殖方式已经使用了好几个世纪，并且在那些表现出优异性状并主宰相当大一部分葡萄园区的葡萄品种上有着较好的效果。

Traditionally, propagation was achieved by layering or taking cuttings from a wide range of different plants in the vineyard. In this process, called mass selection, the viticulturalist would propagate only from the plants that showed the characteristics they desired, such as disease resistance, ability to deliver higher yields or excellent flavor profile. Although this kind of vineyard might have been planted with one grape variety, over time the continual mutations create noticeable variation between the different plants in the vineyard.

传统做法上，葡萄繁殖是通过压条或从葡萄园中广泛选取不同植株来进行扦插而完成。这个过程被称为混合选择( mass selection 大量选择)，葡萄种植者只会选择那些具有抗病性，高产性且果实风味出色等种植者期望的优点的葡萄枝条来进行繁殖。尽管这样的葡萄园可能只栽种了一个品种，但是随着时间的推移，持续性的变异会给园内不同的植株带来明显的差异。

Clonal selection takes this selection process to its logical conclusion, by selecting a single plant with the most favoured characteristics. This technique became widespread in the 1950s, and clonal work continues at specialist nurseries and research stations. As each generation of the selected clone grows, cuttings are taken from only the specimens that best show the desired characteristics. When an ideal plant is found, it can be propagated commercially and sold to vineyard owners. The population of its cuttings is called a clone.

按照以上选择过程来类推，品系选择则是通过挑选一个具有大多数优良特性的植株来进行。这项技术在20世纪50年代广泛传播开来，品系选择研究工作在一些专家的苗圃以及研究所里继续进行。每一代经过甄选的苗长大后，还要经过再一轮甄选，只有那些表现出了优良性状的标本才会再次进行扦插。当一个完美的植株出现时，它就会被商业化繁殖进而卖给各个葡萄园主。这些扦插苗被称为一个品系(clone 克隆苗)。

There are criticisms of clonal selection. First, the priorities of the viticulturalist when the vineyard is planted may be different from those of the person using the grapes 20-30 years later. Some historic selections prioritised high yields, whereas currently higher quality would be more important and in the future viticulturalists may prioritise drought or heat tolerance or delayed sugar accumulation. Second, the rigorous selection process that produces new clones means that the genetic variation in vineyards today is reduced. Although this does mean that there are potentially fewer poor quality clones it can make a vineyard more susceptible to a particular strain of a disease and some argue that the lack of variation can lead to a certain uniformity and dullness in the wines that are produced.

品系的选择现在也遭到了批评，首先，种植者在葡萄园建立之初的偏爱会与20~30年后使用这些葡萄的人喜好不一样。产量曾经是葡萄品种选择时的优先考量标准，但是现在优异的品质相较高产量更为重要，而在未来可能葡萄的抗旱性、抗热性或者是延迟积累糖分的能力会成为优先考量的因素。其次，生产新品系的严格甄选过程减少了葡萄园中的遗传变异量。尽管这个过程减少了较差质量的葡萄苗，但是会造成葡萄园对某一些特殊病害的易感性，另外还有人认为减少变异会导致用这些葡萄酿成的酒出现一定程度上的同质化或呆板。

CROSSINGS AND HYBRIDS

Creating New Vine Varieties

In the past, new varieties came about through chance and time but today research departments across the world are trying to create new and improved varieties from seeds. Researchers are looking for vines that are better equipped to thrive in certain climates and soil conditions as well as varieties with improved disease resistance and those able to deliver higher quantity or quality.

种内杂交和种间杂交

培养新的葡萄品种

过去，新品种藉由偶然性和时间的积累出现，但是现在世界各地的研究部门都在努力尝试通过种子培育新品种或改良旧品种。研究者们都在寻找可以在一些特定气候以及土壤条件下茁壮成长，有较好的抗病性且能较高产量或品质的品种。

Creating a new grape variety for commercial use is a very costly and time-consuming process. Nearly all new varieties are grown from seed and every seedling is technically a new variety. Many seedlings fail in the first year and the producer has to wait at least two or three years before those that survive produce any fruit. It takes far longer than that to demonstrate the long-term value of the variety. The difficulty in producing a successful new variety explains the small number of new varieties bred in the last 150 years that have found a successful niche in the vineyards of the world. Although one or two have been commercially very successful, for example Dornfelder in Germany and Pinotage in South Africa, none has come to be seen as top quality. Much more success has been achieved in the creation of new rootstocks.

培育一个具有商业用途的新品种需花费很多的金钱和时间。几乎所有的新品种都是从种子萌发而来，严格来说每一棵秧苗都是一个理论上的新品种。很多秧苗在第一年的表现会很差，种植者需要等待至少2到3年才能看到存活下来的秧苗结出果实。而新品种展示出它的长期价值则需要更长的时间，培养一个成功的新品种如此困难，这也解释了为什么在过去150年里只有少数新品种能在各地的葡萄园里找到合适的生长环境。尽管一到两个品种已经在商业上很成功，例如德国的丹菲特以及南非的比诺塔基，但没有一个拥有顶级的品质。多数的成功例子都是通过培育新的砧木而取得的。

Viticulturalists have specific words they use to describe the various ways new seedings come into being.

葡萄栽培者在描述新秧苗培育方法是会用到特定的词汇。

Crossings

In viticultural language a crossing is a grape variety whose original ‘parent’ vine was grown from a seed whose parent plants were both V.vinifera. Although by this definition every vinifera variety is ultimately a crossing, the word is usually used only where the identity of the parents is known. For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that Cabernet Sauvignon was a crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc. Some well-known modern crosses include Müller Thurgau (Riesling x Madeline Royale) and Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault).

种内杂交

在葡萄栽培术语中，crossing 种类杂交是指用来杂交的两个品种的原始亲本都是由欧亚葡萄的种子萌发而来。尽管按照这个定义，所有的欧亚葡萄都是种内杂交而来，但是这个短语通常只用于两个亲本的身份已知的情况时。例如，现代脱氧核糖核苷酸 (DNA) 技术已经发现Cabernet Sauvignon 赤霞珠是由 Cabernet Franc 品丽珠与Sauvignon Blanc 长相思种内杂交而来。另外一个出名的现代种类杂交还包括了由Riesling 雷司令和Madeline Royale 皇玛德琳种内杂交成的Müller Thurgau 穆勒图尔高，以及由Pinot Noir 黑皮诺和 Cinsault 神索种内杂交成的Pinotage 比诺塔基。

Hybrids

For viticulturalists, a hybrid is a vine whose parents come from two different species of Vitis which may or may not include V.vinifera. This use of the word hybrid is particular to viticulture: other plant breeders do not usually use the wood hybrid in this way.

种间杂交

对于葡萄栽培者而言，hybrid 种间杂交指的是杂交的两个品种属于不同的葡萄种类，这些种类中不一定包含欧亚葡萄。种间杂交只有在葡萄栽培学里才有这一特定含义，而其他植物育种通常不会将这层含义用到种间杂交一词中。

Hybrid grapevines were first used in viticulture when Europeans settled in North America. They found thatV. vitifera plants imported from Europe were unable to cope with the local weather, pests and diseases but that the wine made from local vines was not very palatable. V. vinifera was crossed with local varieties to produce the first hybrids which were able to survive and produce more acceptable wines. The significance of hybrids in viticulture grew in the mid- to late- nineteenth century as North American vine diseases (Powdery Mildew, Downy Mildew) and pests (Phylloxera) spread to Europe. Disease-resistant hybrids, which had been bred in North America, were extensively cultivated throughout Europe. They were finally outlawed for use in quality wines made in Europe in the 1950s.

葡萄种间杂交方式是在欧洲人移民北美之后才第一次出现。他们发现，从欧洲带来的欧亚葡萄不能适应当地的气候，无法抵御当地虫害、病害，但是用原来生长在北美的葡萄酿出来的酒又不是非常可口。于是人们就用欧亚葡萄与当地品种进行种间杂交，从而培育出来既能在当地存活又能酿出美味的葡萄酒的品种。这类种间杂交在19世纪中晚期变得更为重要，因为北美的葡萄病害（白粉病、霜霉病）以及虫害（葡萄根瘤蚜）扩散到了欧洲。原来只在北美培育的对病害有抗性杂交种，也开始广泛地在整个欧洲栽培。在20世纪50年代，法律终于规定这些杂交种不允许用于生产欧洲优质葡萄酒。

Nowadays, hybrids are rarely used to produce fruit for winemaking. However, they are still used almost globally for their rootstocks.

如今，种间杂交种葡萄已经几乎不再结出果实来用于葡萄酒的酿造了。但是，他们仍然是全球砧木的主要来源。