距今大约5亿年前开始,地球上出现了一次生命大爆发,也正因如此将地球带入了显生宙(之前的冥古宙、太古宙和元古宙统称为“隐生宙”)的时代。显生宙之下,人们根据物种的不同特征又划分为古生代、中生代和新生代。在三大地质时代之下,科学家们又依据不同阶段而细化出了12个纪元。下面就让我们通过了解不同地质纪元的地球主宰,来了解地球上生物的进化历史吧。
寒武纪:奇虾、生物大爆炸
距今5.42亿年到4.85亿年之间,被科学家们称为寒武纪,它是显生宙的开端。此时的地球上,存在一个超大陆潘诺西亚,然而地表绝大多数面积都被海洋所覆盖,生物孕育其中。在寒武纪初期短短的几百万年里,集中诞生了绝大多数无脊椎动物,他们形态各异、种类繁多,出土化石的数量惊人。而在寒武纪之前更为古老的底层中,人们却长期未能寻得东吴化石,因此寒武纪的这场生物大爆发又被古生物学家称为“寒武爆发”。
寒武纪生命大爆发
早期地球上的生物均生长在海洋中,即便是动物们也几乎是静止不动的,不同的物种大体上维持一种互不干涉的生存状态。那时的地球上,偶尔出现某些滤食类生灵,就已经堪称海洋霸主了。然而进入寒武纪生物大爆发之后,动物之间的生存竞争骤然激烈。或许是因为某些物种突然开荤,又或许是由于太多新物种的出现造成了资源紧张,总之动物们为了生存而纷纷进化。大多数动物均于此时披上了重甲,硬壳类动物第一次大量的出现在了地球上。
奇虾
为了能够更好的捕食猎物,一种名叫奇虾的动物进化出了在当时而言无比锋利的爪子。拥有了这双锋利的武器,奇虾在寒武纪的动物争霸舞台上所向披靡。同时在奇虾的嘴巴附近,形成了32个重叠的吸盘结构,能够在靠近猎物的时候吞食和碾碎它们。如此以来,食物丰盛的奇虾体型越来越大,最长身型可达2米之巨,成为了寒武纪时代地球上名副其实的霸主。只是在距今4.88亿年前,进入寒武纪尾声时,地球上超过40%的物种突然灭绝了。据科学家推断,这很可能是因为一个冰河时代的来临,导致大量生命无法承受温度的剧烈变化而出现的。
奥陶纪:角石、地壳运动频发
寒武纪大灭绝标志着一个纪元的结束,也意味着新纪元的开始。随着冰河时代的结束,大量融化的雪水流入海洋,导致奥陶纪成为历史上发生海侵(又称海进,指的是因海面上升或陆地下降,造成海水对大陆区侵进的地质现象)最广泛的时期之一。由于寒武纪末至奥陶纪初期,地球上的地质、气候等环境剧烈变化影响了地球物种的结构。
角石
早在寒武纪时期,由于奇虾的肆掠(当时除奇虾之外的绝大多数物种,身长不过巴掌大小),许多物种只能小心翼翼的生存,同时着重进化更好的防御能力。在此背景之下,角石出现了。不同于当时其他的物种,在角石的进化历程中,慢慢形成了一种新的体态。它们将自己最为脆弱的肉体藏于甲壳之内,而将杀伤力最强的腕足至于壳外,如此便形成了一种扛着壳体的形态。在角石从出生到成熟的过程中,伴随着肉体的生长,外壳的直径逐渐变大。最终在壳体的前部形成寄存肉体的住室,而在壳体后半部到尖端的一方则形成了一系列储存气体的气室,气室的存在有助于帮助角石在水中更好的升降和平衡。
房角石
不同于奇虾内部种类的体态相对统一,角石的形状千姿百态。有的壳体如同圆盘一样,身长也仅有2.5厘米左右;有的壳体笔直,身长亦可达到15厘米的样子;还有的角石身形巨大,捕杀体长1.8米的海底小霸王巨型羽翅鲎,都显得轻松无比。这后一种角石种类,名叫房角石,体型足足有9米之长,是奥陶纪海洋中当之无愧的霸主,就连前任霸主奇虾在它面前都只能沦为食物了。奥陶纪时期,鳗鱼和原始鱼类开始出现,珊瑚、三叶虫、原始章鱼等历史上赫赫有名的动物同样诞生于此时。然而在奥陶纪末期,尤其太空中的伽马射线破坏了臭氧层,导致紫外线辐射摧毁了大部分的动植物,进而造成地球上超过60%的生物在此次事件中灭绝,地球生态链由此迎来新的洗牌。
志留纪:板足鲎、植物登陆生长
进入志留纪时代,海生无脊椎动物仍然占据重要地位。然而经过了奥陶纪末期大灭绝事件后,长期处于海洋生物底层的鲎类迎来了自己物种的春天。这些不同物种的鲎同属于板足鲎类。作为志留纪时期的地球霸主,板足鲎在寒武纪时期只能隐藏自己弱小的身躯,以躲避奇虾的捕猎。进入奥陶纪时期,板足鲎进化出了更为坚硬的铠甲,并且前端双足形成了十分尖锐的利钳。更为重要的是,板足鲎的附肢已经在海生动物中率先完成了运动化与呼吸化的隔离,这促使它们在海洋中要更加灵活。
板足鲎
板足鲎的进化,导致奇虾再难如从前一样捕食它们,并进化出了巨型羽翅鲎这一身长1.8米的物种。然而纵观整个奥陶纪,长达9米的房角石才是更占优势的存在。在前后三千万年的奥陶纪时期,板足鲎始终被房角石压制而难以抬头,直至志留纪时代的来临。由于遭到了角石的压迫,板足鲎再度进化,出现了体长3米的广翅鲎。巨大的身形、坚硬的外壳、锋利的双钳和灵活的附肢,使得广翅鲎被古生物学家冠名以“帝鲎”的尊号,奈何由于脑力发育缺陷,最终消亡了。原来在广翅鲎肆虐的岁月里,海洋中生活着一群身长仅10多厘米的族群,名叫鹦鹉螺。虽然与广翅鲎相比,鹦鹉螺的身材要渺小许多,但是它们特别喜欢偷吃广翅鲎的卵。更为要命的是广翅鲎不仅不能有效的保护自己的子嗣,反而和鹦鹉螺一样,同样喜欢食用同类的卵。就这样广翅鲎被自己玩死了,但是其他板足鲎却借助了奥陶纪末大灭绝的机遇开始腾飞了。
在奥陶纪大灭绝期间,地球海面起伏剧烈,这对运动能力奇差的角石不利,却十分适合灵活善动的板足鲎。趁此机会,板足鲎飞速进化,并发展出体长超过三米的翼肢鲎,将曾经的天敌角石变成了自己的猎物。颇为让人称奇的是,正是在志留纪期间,板足鲎开始逐步入侵陆地,成为海生动物的拓荒者。同样是在志留纪时期,植物种类中的绿藻也开始了征服陆地的步伐。到了志留纪晚期,有颌鱼类的崛起与植物登陆一道成为志留纪最为重要的生物演化事件,同时也正是有颌鱼类的大规模出现,对板足鲎类造成碾压式打击,所幸经此浩劫之后依旧留存有部分板足鲎品类。
有颌鱼类
志留纪晚期,动植物竞相登陆的原因很有可能是由于大气层中的气体成分(主要是氧气和二氧化碳的比例)发生变化,这同样造成了大约距今4.2亿年前的气候变化,并导致了差不多30%的地球物种灭绝。
泥盆纪:邓氏鱼、海西运动
到了4亿年前,泥盆纪开始了。在这一时期,鱼类继续进化。他们一方面在海洋中开疆扩土,逐步碾压了包括三叶虫(这是一种寒武纪就已经存在的海生物种)在内的众多族群;另一方面,它们其中的某些鱼类的鳍开始逐步演变成坚硬的翅片,促使其拥有足够的能力爬行到陆地,并成为爬行动物和两栖动物的祖先。
为了能够与志留纪霸主板足鲎抗衡,有一种鱼类针对它而进行了全面进化,它就是邓氏鱼。比如为了抵御板足鲎锋利的双钳,邓氏鱼进化出了坚硬无比的外甲,其甲胄的密度远胜先前所有物种,故而让板足鲎的武器在它们面前形同虚设。由于惊人的防护能力,泥盆纪时期的邓氏鱼几近于无敌,开始逐步挤压板足鲎的空间,并逐步发育成为体长可达11米、足足有4吨之重、咬合力高达5吨(相当于霸王龙的1.7倍)的顶级掠食物动物。邓氏鱼的是泥盆纪时代最大的海洋猎食者,被科学家们冠名以“恐鱼”的尊号。
到了泥盆纪晚期,发生了一次大规模长时间的物种大灭绝。纵观整个泥盆纪晚期至石炭纪交接之际的大灭绝事件,呈现出两个高峰。第一个发生在泥盆纪晚期法门阶的早期,第二个则出现在泥盆纪和石炭纪交接之时。两次高峰间隔100晚年,前后总计持续了两百多万年甚至更长时间。这次大灭绝事件导致地球上78%的海洋物种灭绝了,迫使更多的物种登陆。最早的陆地脊椎动物海纳螈就是在此时登上了陆地的,而它正是人类和其他四足动物的祖先。
石炭纪:昆虫、蕨类植物繁盛
在邓氏鱼称霸地球的年代里,不论是板足鲎还是角石,它们的甲壳在邓氏鱼颌骨惊人咬合力之下均宛若脆皮一般。所幸的是早在志留纪时期,便有部分板足鲎物种探索陆地,渐渐的在浅水和陆地上得以苟延残喘,而海洋则彻底沦为邓氏鱼的猎场,甚至许多时候邓氏鱼为了争夺水域会在同族之间展开厮杀。庞大的身躯、超强的防御和惊人的咬合力,共用构成了邓氏鱼这一恐怖的杀戮恶魔。然而随着泥盆纪末地球海西运动的加剧,大量地震和火山运动产生了各种喷岩浆。许多鱼类都被海底岩浆烧死或毒死了,即便活下来的物种,许多也因海水缺氧而闷死了。
板足鲎登陆
不可一世在邓氏鱼在大灭绝事件中退出了历史的舞台,海洋物种惨遭重创,这给了陆生物种以绝佳机遇。进入石炭纪之后,泥盆纪时代随处可见的鱼类退出主流,活跃在海洋中的变成了身长渺小的菊石。然而真正开始称霸地球的,其实是昆虫族群。板足鲎再度成为地球上的顶级物种,这得益于部分板足鲎爬上了陆地的努力,进化出可以海陆两栖运作的巨型古广翅鲎。此时的板足鲎变得更加适应陆地了,在海洋中其实远不如它们当年的祖先。可是经历了浩劫后的海洋也没有多少它们的天敌了,只是板足鲎并非石炭纪唯一的主宰。
巨脉蜻蜓
随着植物开始大量从海洋走上陆地,并且逐步演化出木质化的维管组织(蕨类植物大量出现)。大量的碳元素被固定在植物的木质残骸之中,逐步沉淀形成化石和煤炭能源,这便是石炭纪名称的来源。之所以会造成大量碳元素被固定木质之中,是因为当时的生物链中并未出现能够分解这些物质的生态物种。正是由于大量碳元素被深埋地底,才导致大气层中的二氧化碳含量急剧降低,相应的也促使空气中的氧气含量急剧攀升。高浓度的氧气孕育出了巨脉蜻蜓这种翼展95厘米的大型昆虫。这种蜻蜓时速最高可达60千米,即制霸空中,又俯览陆地捕杀猎物,堪称石炭纪时期的雄鹰。
远古蜈蚣虫
与板足鲎和巨脉蜻蜓共同称霸地球的还有远古蜈蚣虫,这种昆虫牢牢的制霸陆地,虽与当今蜈蚣的形态颇为相似,但却凶猛无比。石炭纪的地球霸主不论是往前还是往后比较,都要脆弱的多,它们能够存在也只是依托于当时浓厚的氧气密度。在距今3.05亿年前,冰河时代再度来临,这导致大量热带雨林消亡,二氧化碳跌入地球有史以来最低比重,氧气含量持续增加,甚至一度高达45%。如此高比重的大气层含氧量是极度危险的,因为氧气是一种极其易燃的气体,随着冰河时代的结束和气温的持续回暖,灾难发生了。
二叠纪:引螈、盘古大陆
由于地球大气层的高度富氧化,导致在气温回暖达到某个临界点时,整个地球都被点燃了,高浓度 的氧气助长了火势,一烧就是三十年。燃烧所带来的有毒气体,持续祸害近万年。这场大火也导致石炭纪时期依靠高度氧气含量而发展起来的众多物种灭绝或进化成更为渺小的体型。巨型昆虫惨遭烈火洗地,然而板足鲎却依旧存活了下来。只是进入二叠纪之后的板足鲎再难重振当年的雄风了,由于过早的将附足进行行动和呼吸的绝对隔离,此时的板足鲎再难有潜能可以挖掘,进化方向大体定型。厚重的甲壳导致它们步履蹒跚,在陆地上难以与二叠纪的爬行动物争锋。此时的海洋鱼类再度兴起,浅水则被两栖和爬行动物所占据,因此这支板足鲎就此灭绝了。只是早在寒武纪时期,就有一支板足鲎旁支另辟奇径,在漫长的佛系进化中一路延续到了今天,这便是蜘蛛。(OK,剩下的明天再写)
Beginning about 500 million years ago,there was an explosion of life on Earth that propelled the planet into thePhanerozoic Eon (the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eras were collectivelyknown as the Phanerozoic Eon). According to the different characteristics of thespecies, the Phanerozoic Eon was divided into Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic.Under the three geological epochs, scientists have mapped out 12 epochs basedon different phases. Let us understand the evolutionary history of life onEarth by understanding the masters of the Earth in different geological epochs.
Cambrian: Weird shrimp, biologicalexplosion
Between 542 million and 485 million yearsago, known to scientists as the Cambrian, it was the beginning of thePhanerozoic eon. At this time on Earth, there is a supercontinent, Penotia, butmost of the surface area is covered by the ocean, life in it. Within a fewmillion years at the beginning of the Cambrian period, the vast majority ofinvertebrates were born in a concentrated manner. They were of various shapesand varieties, and an amazing number of fossils were unearthed. But in the moreancient bottom layer before the Cambrian, people have not been able to find theDongwu fossil for a long time, so the Cambrian biological explosion is also called"Cambrian explosion" by paleontologists.
The Cambrian explosion of life
All life on the early Earth lived in theoceans. Even animals were almost motionless, and the different species largelykept to themselves. Back then, the occasional filter-feeding creature wouldhave dominated the oceans. But after the Cambrian explosion, the competitionfor survival was fierce. Whether it was because some species suddenly turnedcarnivore, or because resources were strained by the emergence of too many newspecies, animals evolved to survive. Most animals were heavily armored at thistime, and for the first time, crustaceans appeared on Earth in large numbers.
Odd shrimp
To better hunt its prey, an animal calledthe prawns evolved claws that were, for the time, extremely sharp. Armed withthese razor-sharp weapons, the shrimp won the game in the Cambrian era. Andnear the shrimp's mouth, 32 overlapping suckers form, capable of devouring andcrushing prey as they get close. As a result, the abundant shrimp grew in size,reaching a maximum size of two meters, and became a veritable ruler of theEarth during the Cambrian era. Just 488 million years ago, at the end of theCambrian Period, more than 40 percent of all species on Earth suddenly wentextinct. According to scientists, it was probably the onset of an ice age,which caused a lot of life to be unable to withstand the drastic changes intemperature.
Ordovician: angular stone and crustalmovement occurred frequently
The Cambrian extinction marked the end ofan epoch and the beginning of a new epoch. With the end of the ice Age, largeamounts of melting snow flowed into the ocean, making the Ordovician one of themost widespread periods of transgression (also known as sea progression, thegeological phenomenon of sea water encroaching on continents as the sea surfacerises or the land falls) in history. From the end of Cambrian Period to thebeginning of Ordovician period, the earth's geological, climatic and otherenvironmental drastic changes affected the structure of the earth's species.
Angle of stone
As early as the Cambrian period, manyspecies were forced to live cautiously and evolve better defenses because ofthe predatory behavior of the shrimp (most other species were no bigger than aperson's hand). Against this background, corner stones appear. Different fromother species at that time, during the evolution of hornstone, slowly formed anew body shape. They hide their most vulnerable bodies inside their carapaceand their most lethal arms outside, thus forming a form of carrying the shell.In the process of the hornstone from birth to maturity, along with the growthof the body, the diameter of the shell gradually becomes larger. Finally, abody housing is formed in the front part of the shell, and a series of gaschambers are formed in the back half of the shell to the tip. The existence ofgas chambers helps the horn stone to better rise and fall in the water andbalance.
The cornerstone
Different from the shrimp inside therelatively uniform body, horn stone shape varied. Some shells like disks, thebody length is only about 2.5 cm; Some shell straight, the body length canreach 15 cm; There are huge horn stone body size, hunting 1.8 meters longundersea small overlord giant limulus, are very easy. The latter hornstonespecies, named Fang hornstone, has a body size of 9 meters long and is theundisputed hegemon of the Ordovician ocean. Even the former hegemon, the oddshrimp, can only be reduced to food in front of it. During the Ordovicianperiod, eels and primitive fish began to appear, as did corals, trilobites,primitive octopuses and other historically famous animals. At the end of theOrdovician, however, gamma rays, especially from space, destroyed the ozonelayer, causing ultraviolet radiation to destroy most of the plants and animals.In this event, more than 60 percent of life on Earth was wiped out, and theecological chain was reshuffled.
Silurian: plantlet horseshoe crab, plantlanding growth
Into the Silurian era, Marine invertebratesstill occupy an important position. But after the extinction event at the endof the Ordovician period, the horseshoe crabs, long at the bottom of Marinelife, had their own spring. These different species of horseshoe crabs belongto the same family. As the dominant species of the Earth in the Silurianperiod, Limulus platylius had to hide its tiny body from the shrimp during theCambrian period. During the Ordovician period, the horseshoe crab evolvedstiffer armor, and its front legs formed sharp claws. More importantly, theappendages of platyfooted horseshoes have become the first Marine animals tocomplete the separation of locomotion and respiration, which makes them moreflexible in the ocean.