作者开篇又对比了一下农业与工业的差异 —— 而这就带出了一个重要的概念:
传统的生产分析着重于农业。
马歇尔开始重视工业。
其中最重要的一点,是工业生产加上了“上头成本”(overhead costs,马歇尔称之为supplementary costs)。
什么是上头成本(overhead costs)?
字典把overhead costs译作“经常性支出”,不对,无以名之,直译为“上头成本”最恰当。
上头成本必定要在作了生产投资,开了档,才可以存在。这些成本是指开始经营后,有些费用不生产也要支付。
上头成本还有另外一个定义,那是指一家生产企业若出产几种或多种产品时,某些成本(上头成本)不能在不同的产品上摊分。
上头成本与直接成本之间通常有一片灰色地带。以一间酒家而论。。。侍应、厨师等工资,可以在某种程度上以生意的多少来调整,属于灰色地带。这是吹毛求疵的问题,不重要。
那看看众包大辞海的定义呢?
In business, overhead or overhead expense refers to an ongoing expense of operating a business. Overheads are the expenditure which cannot be conveniently traced to or identified with any particular revenue unit, unlike operating expenses such as raw material and labor. Therefore, overheads cannot be immediately associated with the products or services being offered, thus do not directly generate profits. However, overheads are still vital to business operations as they provide critical support for the business to carry out profit making activities. For example, overhead costs such as the rent for a factory allows workers to manufacture products which can then be sold for a profit. Such expenses are incurred for output generally and not for particular work order; e.g., wages paid to watch and ward staff, heating and lighting expenses of factory, etc. Overheads are also a very important cost element along with direct materials and direct labor.
Overheads are often related to accounting concepts such as fixed costs and indirect costs.
Overhead expenses are all costs on the income statement except for direct labor, direct materials, and direct expenses. Overhead expenses include accounting fees, advertising, insurance, interest, legal fees, labor burden, rent, repairs, supplies, taxes, telephone bills, travel expenditures, and utilities.
这个定义中讲了三个维度,其中:
- 第一段,和作者提到的两个定义是一致的,“人工”、“原材料”等可以“直接”跟踪到某营收单元之外的,就是overhead (expense)
- 第二段,从会计角度,overhead一般指的是fixed costs / indirect costs —— 但是经济学上三者概念可以说是一致的
- 第三段,这就是经济学和会计学的分野了,众包大辞海中列举的这些,在经济学上也可以称之为“成本”;但是如折旧、摊销等过去投入的分摊,也进入income statement,就不是了 —— 作者也进行了解释:
重要的是上述的成本不一定是成本。有两个原因:
其一。。。历史成本不是成本。
这个当然,经济学的选择,是基于当下的选择,是向前看。
其二。。。在组合生产要素时,你可能签了好些合约,作了承诺,不能反悔。不能更改的支出,因为没有选择而变为不是成本。
这里有两点:
- 作者可能指的是预付之类,所有的预付也是有违约代价的;
- 当然,另外一个角度是基于反事实的角度 —— 站在此时此刻的时间点,将反悔与不反悔的所有收益代价核算一遍,比较一下,自然也清楚了。