Revolution, Counterrevolution, Urban Redevelopment – ‘New Moscow 2’. The Masterplan of 1935

革命、反革命、城市重建——《新莫斯科2》。1935年总体规划

Irina Korobina

The Russian approach to urban planning has always differed radically from the European. In Russia, the idea of urban development has usually been identified with a questfor ideal forms of organisation of urban space and has accordingly tended to express clear and decisive planning intentions. This is especially evident in the history of the development of Moscow in the 20th century. Urban planning in Moscow constantly turns to the idea of foreseeing the future and designing the ideal city. And there is good reason for this. History has predetermined the ideology that has shaped Moscow’s development.

俄罗斯的城市规划方法始终与欧洲截然不同。在俄罗斯，城市发展的理念通常被认为是对城市空间组织的理想形式的追求，并因此倾向于表达明确和果断的规划意图。这在20世纪莫斯科的发展史上尤为明显。莫斯科的城市规划不断转向预测未来和设计理想城市的理念。这是有充分理由的。历史已经预先确定了影响莫斯科发展的意识形态。

Following the October Revolution of 1917, Moscow became the capital of the young Soviet State, taking upon itself the role of ideological centre and laboratory for experiments in the formation of a new society and the quest for new forms of housing. It was this period that defined the ideal goal of building the ‘bright future’, which in turn determined the direction to be taken by urban planning over this entire period. The 20th century saw a succession of concepts for building ‘New Moscow’ – whether they were ideas by individual architects or plans developed over years by planning institutions.

1917年十月革命之后，莫斯科成为了这个年轻的苏维埃国家的首都，在形成一个新社会和寻求新的住房形式方面，莫斯科承担着意识形态中心和实验实验室的角色。正是这一时期确定了建设“光明未来”的理想目标，进而决定了整个时期城市规划的方向。20世纪出现了一系列建设“新莫斯科”的概念——无论是建筑师个人的想法，还是规划机构多年来制定的计划。这包括设计全新的社会主义定居点形式，以制衡资产阶级城市。这样的形式有花园城市、卫星城市、公社城市、线性城市和首都城市，由卫星城市等组成。苏联和西方的先锋思想家们提出的激进思想没有实现，但对国际建筑运动产生了强烈影响。

This involved designing radically new socialist forms of settlement as counterbalance to the bourgeois city. Such forms were the garden city, the satellite city, the commune city, the linear city, and the capital city, consisting of an agglomeration of satellite cities and so on. Radical ideas dreamt up by avant-garde thinkers in the Soviet Union and the West were not realised, but nevertheless had a strong influence on the international movement in architecture.

The technical and scientific revolution and the social shocks at the beginning of the 20th century led to a radical transformation of all aspects of life in Russia. The Revolution of 1917 conjured up social-economic and political utopias affecting all fields of life, resulting in the banning of private ownership of land and real estate, of manufacturing plants, natural resources, etc, and in the establishment of a new communist society and the world’s first Soviet state.

20世纪初的技术和科学革命以及社会冲击导致了俄罗斯生活各个方面的彻底变革。1917年的革命催生了影响生活各个领域的社会经济和政治乌托邦，导致禁止私人拥有土地和房地产、制造厂、自然资源等，并建立了一个新的共产主义社会和世界上第一个苏维埃国家。

The urban-planning utopias of this time were the result of social, economic, and political ideals and expectations. Lenin had moved the Soviet government to Moscow; in 1918 the city became the capital of Russia and in 1922 of the USSR – the country’s political, industrial, and cultural centre. This had implications for the way in which Moscow changed and developed, but also for the ideological content of its architecture.

The 1920s saw the appearance of a whole series of projects aimed at totally reconstructing Moscow in order to turn it into the ideal communist city. Ideas for communist forms of settlement were based on a faith in the power of technical science and rational organisation of space. Theiraim was to radically change the existing situation and thus transform Moscow into the ‘capital city of the victorious proletariat’. As early as 1918, this policy had produced an example of a qualitatively new approach to urban development. B. Sakkulin’s enfluentogram was Russia’s first regional urban-planning project based on group socialist settlement. The ‘Large Moscow’ project developed by a team led by Sergey Shestakov in 1926 proposed enlarging thecapital and surrounding it with two rings of satellite cities.

20世纪20年代，出现了一系列旨在彻底重建莫斯科的项目，以使其成为理想的共产主义城市。共产主义定居形式的理念基于对技术科学力量和空间合理组织的信念。Theiraim旨在从根本上改变现状，从而将莫斯科转变为“胜利的无产阶级的首都”。早在1918年，这项政策就为城市发展树立了一个全新的典范。B、 萨库林的分流图是俄罗斯第一个基于集体社会主义定居点的区域城市规划项目。谢尔盖·谢斯塔科夫（Sergey Shestakov）领导的团队于1926年开发的“大莫斯科”项目建议扩大首都，并在其周围建造两圈卫星城。

The rapid development of transport, the beginning of mass construction of housing, and the use of new constructions and materials opened up endless opportunities for urban planners. The 1932 competition for proposals for the General Plan for Moscow was a response to a profound public need in the country of the Soviets, and it gave rise to some extremely radical ideas. Architect Nikolay Ladovsky proposed interrupting the annular structure in one spot and giving Moscow the freedom to grow, thus turning the city into a parabola. The project by the VOPRA team was an attempt to fit a radial/annular city into a rectangular grid of main roads.

交通的快速发展，住房大规模建设的开始，以及新建筑和材料的使用，为城市规划者提供了无尽的机会。1932年，莫斯科总计划提案的竞争是对苏联国家公众强烈需求的回应，并引发了一些极端激进的想法。建筑师尼古拉·拉多夫斯基（Nikolay Ladovsky）提议在一个地方中断环形结构，让莫斯科有发展的自由，从而将城市变成抛物线。VOPRA团队的项目试图将一个放射状/环形城市纳入一个长方形的主干道网格。

Le Corbusier proposed building a new Moscow with an orthogonal layout instead of the existing irregular city. Hans Meyer (Germany) designed a system of ten specialised satellite cities arranged around Moscow as their nucleus. His compatriot, architect Kurt Meyer, proposed turning Moscow into a stellar city that would symbolise democracy. The competition intensified the debate developing during the first Five- Year-Plan between urbanists and disurbanists.

勒·柯布西耶提议建设一个正交布局的新莫斯科，而不是现有的不规则城市。Hans Meyer（德国）设计了一个以莫斯科为核心的十个专业卫星城市系统。他的同胞、建筑师库尔特·梅耶（Kurt Meyer）提议将莫斯科打造成一座象征民主的明星城市。这场竞争加剧了第一个五年计划期间城市化者和郊区居民之间的争论。

The housing problem was so urgent that it had to be prioritised. In 1918 private ownership of real estate was annulled. Workers and soldiers and their families were given rooms in large apartments that had previously been owned by the bourgeoisie. This came to be known as ‘communal apartments’. In the 1920s a start was made on a state programme for the construction of housing; apartments were given to those in need on a rental basis. Residential districts for workers began to appear, usually in the vicinity of factories. At the same time, new and experimental types of housing and construction technology were developed. The best architects designed ‘commune houses’. These were idealistic ways of organising the lives of workers with an emphasis on communal living and collective recrea tion. Construction costs were to be reduced by minimising the amount of space allocated to each member of the house. Considerable effort went into designing residential units that would make optimum use of minimal amounts of space. Subsequently, these experiments shaped the development of housing all over the world.

住房问题如此紧迫，必须优先考虑。1918年，私有房地产被废除。工人、士兵和他们的家人在以前属于资产阶级的大公寓里得到了房间。这被称为“公共公寓”。20世纪20年代，国家住房建设计划开始实施；公寓以出租的方式提供给有需要的人。工人居住区开始出现，通常在工厂附近。同时，还开发了新的试验性住房和建筑技术。最好的建筑师设计了“公社住宅”。这些都是组织工人生活的理想化方式，强调社区生活和集体重建。通过尽量减少分配给房屋每个成员的空间，可以降低建筑成本。在设计住宅单元时，付出了巨大的努力，以最大限度地利用最小的空间。随后，这些实验塑造了世界各地住房的发展。

One of the tools used in organising people’s lives was the construction of public housing and provision of services that allowed workers more time for work and self-education. This was the age that saw the appearance of kindergartens, crèches, and a new type of catering service, the kitchen factory, which could serve up to 1500 people simultaneously. At the same time, architects tackled the task of organising workers’ recreation. The country switched to a seven-hour working day and passive leisure became increasingly unpopular. Theatres and concert halls were now seen as remnants of the old bourgeois way of life. For all-round development of people’s personalities, a new type of building, the workers’ club, was invented. This was intended to provide a full range of diverse types of cultural activity capable of comprehensively developing the personality. The ‘new type of club’ became a subject for extensive public debate. A radical expression of this discussion was the project of Ivan Leonidov, who proposed a ‘system for organising cultural activities for workers’ as a new lifestyle. Sport had always been an activity for the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie; now a state programme for bringing it to the Soviet masses was announced. The first Soviet sports stadiums were built.

组织人们生活的工具之一是建造公共住房和提供服务，让工人有更多时间工作和自我教育。在这个时代，幼儿园、幼儿园和一种新型餐饮服务——厨房工厂出现了，它可以同时为1500人提供服务。与此同时，建筑师们着手组织工人的娱乐活动。该国改为每天工作7小时，被动休闲越来越不受欢迎。剧院和音乐厅现在被视为旧资产阶级生活方式的残余。为了全面发展人们的个性，人们发明了一种新型建筑——工人俱乐部。这是为了提供能够全面发展个性的各种文化活动。“新型俱乐部”成为广泛公众辩论的主题。伊万·列奥尼多夫（Ivan Leonidov）的项目是这种讨论的一个激进表达，他提出了一种“为工人组织文化活动的系统”，作为一种新的生活方式。体育一直是贵族和资产阶级的活动；现在宣布了一项向苏联群众宣传的国家计划。第一座苏联体育场建成了。

In architecture, Constructivism came to the fore. This style’s victory in a fierce battle with traditional architecture was marked by the competition to design the Palace of Labour in Moscow. A project by the Vesnin brothers won this competition. Pride in the revolutionary transformation of society required the construction of prestigiousbuildings that would be seen as symbolically affirming thenew socialist values. Avant-garde experiments of this time were aimed not only at resolving social problems, but also at providingsymbols of the construction of a new world. Tatlin’s Tower, a design inspired by the First Congress of the Third Communist International (held in Moscow in 1919) became a symbol of the age, while Shabolov’s Radio Tower symbolised Soviet progress in science and technology (due to the difficult economic situation followingthe Revolution, it was built to only half its planned height).The Soviet authorities were intent on displaying to boththeir own citizens and the rest of the world the first successesand achievementsof their rule. The mid-1920s saw the construction of the National Agricultural and Craft/Industrial Exhibition on the site of an old rubbish tip (thegrounds of the exhibition later became the Park of Cultureand Recreation). Russia’s first planetarium, crowned by the largest dome in Europe, displayed the achievements of Sovietscience and ‘the expansion of the world revolution into the cosmos’

在建筑学中，建构主义脱颖而出。这种风格在与传统建筑的激烈竞争中获胜，标志着莫斯科劳动宫的设计竞赛。韦斯宁兄弟的一个项目赢得了这次比赛。对社会革命性变革的自豪感要求建立起一座可以被视为象征性地肯定社会主义新价值观的历史建筑。这一时期的前卫实验不仅旨在解决社会问题，也旨在为建设一个新世界提供象征。塔特林塔（Tatlin’s Tower）的设计灵感来自第三共产主义国际第一次代表大会（1919年在莫斯科举行），成为这个时代的象征，而沙波洛夫的无线电塔象征着苏联在科学和技术方面的进步（由于革命后经济形势困难，它的建造高度仅为计划高度的一半）。苏联当局打算向本国公民和世界其他地区展示其统治的第一次成功和成就。20世纪20年代中期，国家农业和工艺/工业展览会（National Agricultural and Craft/Industrial Exhibition）在一个旧垃圾场（该展览会的场地后来成为文化和娱乐公园）建设。俄罗斯第一座天文馆以欧洲最大的圆顶为顶，展示了苏联科学的成就和“世界革命向宇宙的扩展”

As Soviet rule gathered strength and the political situation changed, the hyper-project ‘New Moscow’ – aimed at creating an ideal capital city for the world’s proletariat and involving many innovations and much successful experimentation in approaches to social, economic, and architectural aspects of urban development – began to change its shape. The ideology remained the same – i.e. to ‘build the bright future’ – but it now had a different image and different means of implementation.

随着苏联统治的加强和政治形势的改变，超级项目“新莫斯科”开始改变其形状，该项目旨在为世界无产阶级创造一个理想的首都，并在城市发展的社会、经济和建筑方面进行了许多创新和大量成功的试验。意识形态保持不变，即“建设光明的未来”，但现在有了不同的形象和不同的实施方式。

The totalitarian idea of the ‘Capital of the Empire of Victorious Socialism’ which accompanied the severe centralisation of power that had taken place by the mid-1930s, was affirmed in the process of Moscow’s transformation into a monumental art project, a collection of ensembles in a grand style. If ‘New Moscow’ involved the creation of a new reality, ‘New Moscow 2’ was intended to depict and convey through artistic means the ideas of imperial prosperity and the strength of the Soviet state.

伴随着1930年代中期发生的权力严重集中，“胜利社会主义帝国首都”的极权主义思想在莫斯科转变为一个宏伟的艺术项目的过程中得到了肯定，这是一个宏大风格的合奏集。如果说《新莫斯科》涉及创造一个新的现实，那么《新莫斯科2》旨在通过艺术手段描绘和传达帝国繁荣和苏联国家强大的思想。

During this period, the USSR demonstrated to the rest of the world its aspiration to take the lead in all spheres of life. Chelyuskin made his expedition to the North Pole. Chkalov flew over the Arctic from Russia to America. Korolev developed a theory for conquering the cosmos. These achievements were intended to serve as proof of the power of the young Soviet state.

在此期间，苏联向世界其他国家展示了其在生活各个领域领先的愿望。切柳斯金远征北极。恰卡洛夫飞越北极，从俄罗斯飞往美国。科罗廖夫提出了征服宇宙的理论。这些成就旨在证明年轻的苏联国家的力量。

The New General Plan for the Redevelopment of Moscow adopted in 1935 called for a more than 100 percent increase in the city’s physical size and for considerable growth in the number of its inhabitants. The plan was based on the idea of ‘correcting’ the city’s original layout and turning it into an ideal radial/annular structure. Unlike the radical ideas of the 1920s, the Stalinist concept of the city did not deny the Moscow that actually existed at the time. However, it was embodied in specific monumental projects that shared a ‘grand style’. The construction of the Palace of Soviets and of the Moscow metro; the creation of a new system of main streets to serve as the city’s façade; and the construction of embankments and new bridges, a central park, and district parks: all this was intended to turn Moscow into an ideal city that would show the world the advantages of the socialist system and the prosperity and strength of the USSR. ‘New Moscow 2’ began with the pursuit of a strict state policy that called for supervision of all fields of life, including art and architecture. As the Party and the Soviet Government set course for a revival of classical heritage, the advances made by the avant-garde were depicted as a wrong turning.

1935年通过的《莫斯科重新发展新总体计划》要求将城市的实际规模增加100%以上，并大幅增加居民数量。该计划基于“修正”城市原有布局并将其变成理想的放射状/环形结构的想法。与20世纪20年代的激进思想不同，斯大林主义的城市概念并没有否定当时实际存在的莫斯科。然而，它体现在具有“宏伟风格”的特定纪念性项目中。苏联宫殿和莫斯科地铁的建设；创建一个新的主要街道系统，作为城市的外墙；以及修建堤防和新桥、中央公园和地区公园：所有这些都旨在将莫斯科变成一个理想的城市，向世界展示社会主义制度的优势以及苏联的繁荣和强大《新莫斯科2》一开始奉行严格的国家政策，要求对包括艺术和建筑在内的所有生活领域进行监督。当党和苏联政府为复兴古典遗产设定了路线时，先锋派所取得的进步被描绘为一个错误的转折。

In spite of the lack of a developed construction industryand the limited funding available, the New General Plan was implemented with success. Moscow acquired a new face and the grandeur of a capital city. There was a very rapid improvement in the country’s infrastructure: the construction of the Moskva-Volga Canal made Moscow a port with links to five seas and solved the problems of the city’s water supply (Figs. 1 – 4). Ten new bridges were built over the River Moskva, and a river port was constructed. The city’s railway system was at the time one of the best in Europein terms of passenger and freight capacity. By the end of the 1930s, Moscow was second only to New York for the power of its heating systems. Air transport was also developing fast. The first airport in the Moscow region was built before World War II. In 1935, the first line of theMoscow metro, the city’s main transport system, came into operation. Considerable effort was put into developing the road network. Ulitsa Gor’kogo and the Sadovoe Kol’tso in the city centre were widened (Figs. 5 – 6); new main roads and thoroughfares were built; the tramline network was expanded;and trolleybus routes were constructed.

尽管缺乏发达的建筑业和有限的资金，但新的总体计划还是成功地实施了。莫斯科有了新的面貌和首都的宏伟。该国的基础设施得到了非常迅速的改善：莫斯科-伏尔加运河的修建使莫斯科成为了一个连接五个海洋的港口，并解决了该市的供水问题（图1-4）。在莫斯克瓦河上建造了十座新桥，并建造了一个河港。该市的铁路系统当时是欧洲客运和货运能力最好的铁路系统之一。到20世纪30年代末，莫斯科的供暖系统的电力仅次于纽约。航空运输也在快速发展。莫斯科地区的第一个机场是在二战前建成的。1935年，莫斯科主要交通系统莫斯科地铁的第一条线路开始运营。为发展公路网付出了大量努力。市中心的Ulitsa Gor'kogo和Sadovoe Kol'tso拓宽了（图5-6）；修建了新的主要道路和大道；有轨电车线网扩大；修建了无轨电车路线。

Pre-World-War-II housing was directly linked with the construction of main roads and the creation of new embankments along the river. Residential buildings served as facades that gave the city a beautiful ‘face’. And even when housing was in short supply during the post-war crisis, the construction of smart residential complexes continued. The inconvenient interior layouts of these houses were compensated for by their well-designed architectural form and the rich décor on their facades. Apartments in such buildings were given to citizens who had performed services to the state, while the bulk of the population continued to jostle each other in communal apartments and basements

第二次世界大战前的住房与主要道路的建设以及沿河新建堤防的建设直接相关。住宅建筑充当了城市的门面，给城市一个美丽的“面孔”。即使在战后危机期间住房短缺的情况下，智能住宅综合体的建设仍在继续。这些房屋设计精巧的建筑形式和立面丰富的装饰弥补了其内部布局的不便。这类建筑中的公寓是给那些为国家服务的公民的，而大多数人仍然在公共公寓和地下室里相互拥挤

Social services for the ordinary populace started to fall behind. A consequence of the Statute on the Elimination of Private Trade (1931) was the construction of large state grocery shops, supermarkets, and farmer’s markets. Moscowacquired its first smart hotels with fine restaurants. At the same time, though, there was a clear deficit of educationaland children’s institutions and small retail outlets.

普通民众的社会服务开始落后。《消除私人贸易法》（1931年）的一个后果是建造了大型国营杂货店、超市和农贸市场。莫斯科收购了第一家拥有高级餐厅的智能酒店。然而，与此同时，教育机构、儿童机构和小型零售店明显不足。

The emphasis switched once more to classic varieties of recreation. Theatres and concert halls, libraries and museums were built as ‘temples to culture’. The clubs of the 1920s gave way to Palaces of Culture with large auditoria for holding shows and meetings. Physical education and sport were given state backing. Parades of fitness enthusiasts were held on Red Square.

重点再次转向经典的娱乐活动。剧院、音乐厅、图书馆和博物馆被建造成“文化殿堂”。20世纪20年代的俱乐部让位给了文化宫（Palaces of Culture），那里有大型礼堂，可以举办表演和会议。体育和体育得到了国家的支持。红场上举行了健身爱好者的游行。

The Party decided to pursue industrialisation. As thedevelopment of industry intensified, there was a large increase in the total area of land used for manufacturing, especially in eastern and south-eastern districts of the city. Factories built at this time included a car factory, Kalibr, and Frezer. Extensive industrial zones took shape in the Moscow region. In terms of architecture and art, ‘NewMoscow 2’ stood for a grand style based on the assimilation of the classical heritage. The unique public buildings of thetime may be read as symbols. Their purpose was to broadcast to the entire world images of imperial power, world leadership, everlastingness, and immortality. The Universitywas built as a ‘temple of science’ (Fig. 7); the Lenin Libraryas a sanctuary of world knowledge; and the Moskva Hotel as a symbol of hospitality on a capital scale. Here the emphasis was on form; functionality and economics took a back seat. The Red Army Theatre is stellar in shape; itstheatrical functions are ‘squeezed’ into a magical mould. Detsky Mir is a children’s shop writ large in monumental forms. And the ring of high-rise buildings erected at this time had the sole purpose of forming a silhouette fit for a capital city. The function of these skyscrapers was determined during the final stages of design and ‘bundled’ intoa prepared form. Architecture served to illustrate a myth about the advantages and attainments of socialism, and to form a new state version of the sacred.

该党决定推行工业化。随着工业发展的加剧，用于制造业的土地总面积大幅增加，特别是在城市的东部和东南部地区。当时建造的工厂包括一家汽车厂、Kalibr和Frezer。莫斯科地区形成了广泛的工业区。在建筑和艺术方面，“新莫斯科2号”代表了一种基于古典遗产同化的宏伟风格。当时独特的公共建筑可以被解读为象征。他们的目的是向全世界传播帝国权力、世界领导、永恒和不朽的形象。大学被建造为“科学殿堂”（图7）；列宁图书馆是世界知识的避难所；莫斯科酒店是首都好客的象征。这里的重点是形式；功能性和经济性处于次要地位。红军剧院的形状非常漂亮；它的戏剧功能被“挤压”成了一个神奇的模子。Detsky Mir是一家规模宏大的儿童商店。而此时建造的一圈高层建筑，其唯一目的是形成一个适合首都的轮廓。这些摩天大楼的功能是在设计的最后阶段确定的，并“捆绑”成一种准备好的形式。建筑用来说明关于社会主义的优势和成就的神话，并形成一种新的国家版本的神圣。

The most impressive supersize projects of the time were: the VDNKh (Exhibition of the Attainments of the People’s Economy), an exhibition designed as a utopian city of the future (Figs. 8 – 9); the Moscow metro, an ideal city located underground; and the design for the Palace of the Soviets (Fig. 10), which was to be a ‘Temple to Communism’ of all ages and nations. The latter project was never implemented due to the war, but it nevertheless served as a symbol of Moscow and the USSR over the course of many years. The country’s totalitarian government believed that monumental projects of this kind would serve as material proof of the attainability of the utopian ideal. ‘New Moscow 2’ is a rare example of the actual realisation of an ideal city. When Stalin’s personality cult was debunked, the falsity of this concept was revealed. It had helped to spread the imperial image of a superpower, but at the same time had accelerated the USSR’s housing crisis and exacerbated thecountry’s social and economic problems.

当时最令人印象深刻的大型项目是：VDNKh（人民经济成就展），一个设计为未来乌托邦城市的展览（图8-9）；莫斯科地铁，一个位于地下的理想城市；以及苏联宫殿的设计（图10），它将成为各个时代和国家的“共产主义圣殿”。后一个项目由于战争而从未实施，但多年来它一直是莫斯科和苏联的象征。该国极权主义政府认为，这类纪念性项目将作为乌托邦理想可实现性的物质证明“新莫斯科2号”是理想城市实际实现的一个罕见例子。当斯大林的个人崇拜被揭穿时，这一概念的虚假性就暴露了出来。它有助于传播超级大国的帝国形象，但同时也加速了苏联的住房危机，加剧了该国的社会和经济问题。